MONTAIGNE, MICHEL DE

born Feb. 28, 1533, Chteau de Montaigne, near Bordeaux, France died Sept. 23, 1592, Chteau de Montaigne in full Michel Eyquem de Montaigne French writer whose Essais (Essays) established a new literary form. In his Essays he wrote one of the most captivating and intimate self-portraits ever given, on a par with Augustine's and Rousseau's. Living, as he did, in the second half of the 16th century, Montaigne bore witness to the decline of the intellectual optimism that had marked the Renaissance. The sense of immense human possibilities, stemming from the discoveries of the New World travelers, from the rediscovery of classical antiquity, and from the opening of scholarly horizons through the works of the humanists, was shattered in France when the advent of the Calvinistic Reformation was followed closely by religious persecution and by the Wars of Religion (156298). These conflicts, which tore the country asunder, were in fact political and civil as well as religious wars, marked by great excesses of fanaticism and cruelty. At once deeply critical of his time and deeply involved in its preoccupations and its struggles, Montaigne chose to write about himselfI am myself the matter of my book, he says in his opening address to the readerin order to arrive at certain possible truths concerning man and the human condition, in a period of ideological strife and division when all possibility of truth seemed illusory and treacherous. born Feb. 28, 1533, Chteau de Montaigne, near Bordeaux, France died Sept. 13, 1592, Chteau de Montaigne in full Michel Eyquem De Montaigne French writer whose Essais (Essays) established a new literary form. He was a skeptical student of himself and of humanity during the fanatical French religious wars of the later 16th century, and he spoke out for a human-centred morality. Born into a family of the minor nobility, Montaigne was carefully tutored in the family chateau at Montaigne and received an excellent classical education. At age six he was sent to the College of Guyenne at Bordeaux, and he went on to study law at the University of Toulouse (154650). In 1557 he became conseiller at the parlement (high court) of Bordeaux. There he met another lawyer, tienne de La Botie, and formed a friendship that became the outstanding emotional event of his life. La Botie's death in 1563 greatly affected Montaigne, who probably embarked on his writing career six years later in order to fill the emptiness left by the loss of his friend. When his father died in 1568, Montaigne inherited his title and the family chateau. In 1570 he resigned his judicial office, and in the following year he retired to Montaigne to devote himself to reading, writing, and meditation. He began to write the Essais in 1572; the first two books were published in 1580 and consist respectively of 57 and 37 chapters of varying length. The edition of 1588 contains a third book, and the edition of 1595 contains further additions. Montaigne traveled through Germany and Italy in 158081 and described his trip in the posthumously published Journal du voyage. From 1581 to 1585 he served as mayor of Bordeaux. He continued to work on the Essais until his death. Montaigne is essentially famous for one book, the Essais, which gave the word essay its modern meaning and created it as a literary genre. The Essais themselves are a series of 107 chapters on various subjects. After the earliest ones, which are mere strings of anecdotes drawn from classical authors and Renaissance compilers, Montaigne displays an openness of mind and a receptivity to the most audacious ideas, and he begins probing to the roots of accepted customs and values. Thus, for example, the essay Of Cannibals compares European civilization with the newly discovered societies of the Americas to the disadvantage of the former and ends with an implied justification of political and economic equality. In other essays Montaigne subjects the cumbersome processes of the law to keen scrutiny: cruel punishments, torture, and the persecution of witches are condemned by the author's persuasive and reasonable irony, and tolerance is conveyed as a positive ideal by the exposure of the absurdities of intolerance. Montaigne was a practicing Roman Catholic, but no dogma was secure from the play of his mind, and to his skepticism can be traced many of the ideas that were to transform European thought in the 17th and 18th centuries. He never presents his ideas systematically, however, and uses a concrete vocabulary, flexible syntax, and rich verbal associations rather than formal logic to develop and illustrate his thoughts. Above all, the Essais offer a complete physical, emotional, and intellectual portrait of a singularly rich personality in a manner never before accomplished. born Feb. 28, 1533, Chteau de Montaigne, near Bordeaux, France died Sept. 13, 1592, Chteau de Montaigne in full Michel Eyquem De Montaigne French writer whose Essais (Essays) established a new literary form. He was a skeptical student of himself and of humanity during the fanatical French religious wars of the later 16th century, and he spoke out for a human-centred morality. Born into a family of the minor nobility, Montaigne was carefully tutored in the family chateau at Montaigne and received an excellent classical education. At age six he was sent to the College of Guyenne at Bordeaux, and he went on to study law at the University of Toulouse (154650). In 1557 he became conseiller at the parlement (high court) of Bordeaux. There he met another lawyer, tienne de La Botie, and formed a friendship that became the outstanding emotional event of his life. La Botie's death in 1563 greatly affected Montaigne, who probably embarked on his writing career six years later in order to fill the emptiness left by the loss of his friend. When his father died in 1568, Montaigne inherited his title and the family chateau. In 1570 he resigned his judicial office, and in the following year he retired to Montaigne to devote himself to reading, writing, and meditation. He began to write the Essais in 1572; the first two books were published in 1580 and consist respectively of 57 and 37 chapters of varying length. The edition of 1588 contains a third book, and the edition of 1595 contains further additions. Montaigne traveled through Germany and Italy in 158081 and described his trip in the posthumously published Journal du voyage. From 1581 to 1585 he served as mayor of Bordeaux. He continued to work on the Essais until his death. Montaigne is essentially famous for one book, the Essais, which gave the word essay its modern meaning and created it as a literary genre. The Essais themselves are a series of 107 chapters on various subjects. After the earliest ones, which are mere strings of anecdotes drawn from classical authors and Renaissance compilers, Montaigne displays an openness of mind and a receptivity to the most audacious ideas, and he begins probing to the roots of accepted customs and values. Thus, for example, the essay Of Cannibals compares European civilization with the newly discovered societies of the Americas to the disadvantage of the former and ends with an implied justification of political and economic equality. In other essays Montaigne subjects the cumbersome processes of the law to keen scrutiny: cruel punishments, torture, and the persecution of witches are condemned by the author's persuasive and reasonable irony, and tolerance is conveyed as a positive ideal by the exposure of the absurdities of intolerance. Montaigne was a practicing Roman Catholic, but no dogma was secure from the play of his mind, and to his skepticism can be traced many of the ideas that were to transform European thought in the 17th and 18th centuries. He never presents his ideas systematically, however, and uses a concrete vocabulary, flexible syntax, and rich verbal associations rather than formal logic to develop and illustrate his thoughts. Above all, the Essais offer a complete physical, emotional, and intellectual portrait of a singularly rich personality in a manner never before accomplished. Additional reading Donald M. Frame, Montaigne (1965, reprinted 1984), is a detailed biography by an authority in the field. Interpretive approaches to reading Montaigne are collected in Montaigne: Essays in Reading (1983). Peter Burke, Montaigne (1982), offers a very readable brief survey of the historical and philosophical context of Montaigne's life and creativity. Most other critical works focus on exploring the essays and their role in shaping the intellectual tradition: R.A. Sayce, The Essays of Montaigne (1972); M.A. Screech, Montaigne and Melancholy: The Wisdom of the Essays (1983); Jean Starobinski, Montaigne in Motion (1985; originally published in French, 1982); and Dorothy Gabe Coleman, Montaigne's Essays (1987). Tilde A. Sankovitch Major Works: Essays Essais de messire Michel Seigneur de Montaigne, 2 vol. in 1 (1580); Essais de messire Michel Seigneur de Montaigne; dition seconde, revue & augmente (1582); and Essais de messire Michel Seigneur de Montaigne; cinquiesme dition, augmente d'un troisime livre et de six cens additions aux deux premiers, 3 vol. (1588). Other works Journal de voyage (1774). Early translations The Essays; or, Morall, Politike, and Millitarie Discourses of Lo: Michaell de Montaigne, trans. by John Florio (1603); and The Diary of Montaigne's Journey to Italy in 1580 and 1581, trans. by E.J. Trechmann (1929). Collected works OEuvres compltes de Michel de Montaigne, ed. by A. Armaingaud, 12 vol. (192441); OEuvres compltes, ed. by Albert Thibaudet and Maurice Rat, new ed. (1967); and Complete Works: Essays, Travel Journal, Letters, trans. and ed. by Donald M. Frame (1957). Recommended editions Complete Essays (1958, reprinted 1973), and Selections from the Essays (1973), both trans. and ed. by Donald M. Frame.