MOSCOW

Russian Moskva city, capital of Russia. It is located in the western part of the country, about 400 miles (640 kilometres) southeast of St. Petersburg and 600 miles (970 kilometres) east of the Polish border. The Kremlin, centre, and the Archangel (Arkhangelsky) Cathedral, right foreground, on the Moskva Since it was first mentioned in chronicles of 1147, Moscow has played a vital role in Russian history; indeed the history of the city and of the Russian nation are closely interlinked. Today Moscow is not only the political centre of Russia but also the country's leading city in population, in industrial output, and in cultural, scientific, and educational importance. For more than 600 years Moscow has been the spiritual centre of the Russian Orthodox Church. The capital of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (U.S.S.R.) until its dissolution in 1991, Moscow attracted world attention as a centre of Communist power; the name of the seat of the former Soviet government and successor Russian government, the Kremlin (Russian Kreml), became a synonym for Soviet authority. The dissolution of the U.S.S.R. brought economic and political change, along with a degree of uncertainty over the future, to the city. Moscow covers an area of about 386 square miles (1,000 square kilometres), its outer limit being roughly delineated by the Moscow Ring Road. Most of the area beyond this highway has been designated as a Forest-Park Zone, or greenbelt. The early period Foundation and medieval growth The first documentary reference to Moscow is found in the early monastic chronicles under the year 1147, when on April 4 Yury Vladimirovich Dolgoruky, prince of Suzdal, was host at a great banquet for his ally the Prince of Novgorod-Seversky in Moscow. This is the traditional date of Moscow's foundation, although archaeological evidence shows that a settlement had existed on the site since Neolithic times. Archaeological work has also revealed the remains of corduroy roads and evidence of iron and leather working dating from the 11th century. The disturbed times made defense essential, and in 1156 Prince Dolgoruky built the first fortificationsditches and earthen ramparts topped by a wooden wall with blockhouses. This was the Kremlin. The origin of the word kremlin is disputed; some authorities suggest Greek words for citadel or steepness, others the early Russian word krem, meaning a conifer providing timber suitable for building. The Kremlin was sited on the relatively high spit of land between the Moskva River and a small tributary, the Neglinnaya. The triangular piece of land between the rivers was protected on the eastern side by a moat joining them. The Neglinnaya now flows through an underground conduit, but part of its course is traced by a street of the same name. Moscow soon developed as one of the more important towns of the principality of Vladimir-Suzdal. A trading settlement, or posad, grew up to the east of the Kremlin, along the Moskva in the area known as Zaradye. Like most other Russian towns, Moscow was captured and burned by the Mongols in their great invasion of 123640, and its princes had to accept Mongol suzerainty. It soon recovered, though the Mongols sacked it once again in 1293. Three years later the Kremlin was strengthened with a new earthen wall and oak palisade. Thereafter Moscow grew in importance, in trading and artisan activity, and in size, overtaking the older and previously more important centres of Suzdal and Vladimir. The town was fairly centrally placed in the system of rivers and portages that formed the trade routes across European Russia. The area east of Moscow between the Oka and Volga rivers moreover had rather better soils than most of northern Russia and formed a region of more developed agriculture and prosperous towns. Moscow's authority was greatly enhanced when in 1326 the metropolitan of the Russian Orthodox Church transferred his seat from Vladimir to Moscow. Thereafter the town was to remain the centre of Russian Orthodoxy, and after the fall of Constantinople to the Turks (1453) it claimed the title of the Third Rome. Under Ivan I Kalita the principality of Vladimir was incorporated into that of Moscow. Gradually the princes of Moscow extended their rule over the other surrounding Russian princedoms, and the town became the leader in the long struggle against Mongol hegemony. The struggle at first fluctuated. In 1378 a Muscovite army repulsed a Mongol attack on the Vozha River south of the town, and in 1380 Prince Dmitry of Moscow inflicted a crushing defeat on the Mongols under the great khan Mamai at Kulikovo on the Don River, for which victory he was thereafter known as Dmitry Donskoy (of the Don). The Kremlin had been enlarged and given walls and towers of white limestone in 1367, but the new fortifications were unable to withstand a renewed Mongol attack in 1382, when, despite a heroic defense, the khan Tokhtamysh captured and plundered Moscow. Yet another attack in 1408 under Khan Yedigei, however, was beaten off. Moscow grew steadily in size and importance as it continued to absorb the surrounding princedoms. Within the Kremlin the first stone cathedral, the Assumption, was built in 1326. Palaces for the prince and leading boyars, monasteries, and churches were erected. Outside the Kremlin walls, the trading and artisan quarter to the east grew in size and became known as the Kitay-gorod; this name, which originated in the 16th century, probably derives from the word kita, a binding of poles used in the fortifications before stone walls were built, and does not mean Chinese City as it is sometimes translated. The rise of Moscow as capital By the second half of the 15th century, especially after the annexation of Novgorod in 1478, Moscow had become the undisputed centre of a unified Russian state. During the reign of the grand prince of Moscow Ivan III the Great, the Kremlin was again enlarged and given brick walls more than a mile in length and in places up to 60 feet high. From this period also date the rebuilt Cathedral of the Assumption and the equally beautiful Annunciation and (also rebuilt) Archangel cathedrals, the Palace of Facets, and the bell tower of Ivan III. In 153438 the Kitay-gorod, previously protected only by earth banks and palisades, was also surrounded by a brick wall, with 12 towers. The town continued to grow and spread outside the walls to form what became known as the Bely Gorod (White City) in a semicircle around the Kremlin and Kitay-gorod. Despite its new fortifications, Moscow remained subject to disaster and attack. In 1547 two fires destroyed much of the town. In the mid-16th century Ivan IV the Terrible conquered the Tatar (Mongol) khanates of Kazan (1552) and Astrakhan (1556), but in 1571 the Crimean Tatars captured Moscow, burning everything but the Kremlin. The annals record that only 30,000 of 200,000 inhabitants survived. A further attack was launched by the Crimean Tatars in 1591, but they failed to overcome Moscow's stubborn resistance. The defense was helped by the new walls, built between 1584 and 1591 to protect the Bely Gorod, made of stone and some five miles long. The walls' lines are marked today by the strip of parkland and tree-lined streets of the Boulevard Ring. In 1592 an outer earth rampart with 50 towers was thrown up around the city, including an area on the right bank of the Moskva. This encompassed a further extension of Moscow that had grown up beyond the Bely Gorod; known at first as Skorodom, this outer sector came to be called the Zemlyanoy Gorod, or Earthen City. The Garden Ring traces the line of its fortifications. As an outermost line of defense, a chain of strongly fortified monasteries was established beyond the ramparts to the south and east, principally the Novodevichy Convent and Donskoy (Don), Danilovsky, Simonov, Novospassky, and Andronikov monasteries, most of which now house museums. With much improved security, trade and craft manufacture flourished. Distinct quarters were occupied by particular trades; for example, the suburbs of Bronnaya by armour makers, Kuznetskaya by blacksmiths, and Kotelniki by kettle makers. Across the Moskva was the weavers' suburb. These artisan sectors are commonly commemorated today by street or quarter names. State workshops cast cannon and made weapons and gunpowder. The tsar's court and its attendant nobility provided patronage for luxury crafts. Increasingly the boyars took over the Kitay-gorod, with artisans and traders moving to the outer parts; the Kremlin became solely the seat of temporal and ecclesiastical authority. The centre of commercial activity was the market in Red Square between the Kremlin and the Kitay-gorod, where there were rows of stalls, each handling a specific variety of goods; the Russian word for red (krasnaya) also means beautiful, which was the original name for the square. Trade with western Europe (especially England and Holland), as well as with Central Asia, Transcaucasia, Persia, and the Black Sea coast, was brisk, furs forming a major staple in this international commerce. Foreign merchants lived in the Nemetskaya Sloboda (German suburb), and a flourishing cultural life was marked by the growth of the book trade and the founding in 1553 of the first printing house. At the turn of the 17th century Moscow, like the rest of Russia, suffered severely during the Time of Troubles. In the reign of Boris Godunov there were severe famines from 1601 to 1603. After Boris' death in 1605, the first False Dmitry seized Moscow with Polish help, and, though he was killed in 1606 and the Poles were driven out, they reoccupied Moscow with a second False Dmitry in 160810. In May 1611 the Muscovites attacked the Poles, and the invaders retreated into the Kremlin. Under the energetic leadership of a boyar, Prince Dmitry Mikhaylovich Pozharsky, and a merchant, Kuzma Minin, the Russians forced the Poles to surrender in October 1612. With the establishment in 1613 of the Romanov dynasty under Michael, relative peace returned to Moscow and with it further economic advance. Nevertheless the conditions of the poor of the town often led to riots and uprisings; similar events had occurred also in 1382, 1445, and 1547. In 1648, as a result of an increase in the salt tax, and again in 1662 (the so-called Copper Riots) there were disturbances by artisans, labourers, and tradesmen. The great revolt of Stenka Razin in southern Russia (166771) was echoed by unrest in the capital, and in 1671 Razin was executed in Moscow as a warning to its inhabitants. The revolts were put down by the hereditary militia, the streltsy, who in 1698, early in the reign of Peter I the Great, themselves revolted and were suppressed only with great slaughter. Despite the frequent upheavals, however, culture flourished. Russia's first higher educational institution, the Slavonic-Greek-Latin Academy attached to the Zaikonospassky Monastery in the Kitay-gorod, dates from 1687. In 1701 Peter founded a School of Mathematics and Navigation. The first newspaper in Russia began publication in Moscow in 1703. Russian Moskva, oblast (province), western Russia. The oblast surrounds and includes the city of Moscow, the capital of Russia. Moscow oblast was formed in 1929. The main feature of its relief is the Klin-Dmitrov Ridge, which stretches roughly east-west across the oblast, north of Moscow city. The ridge, a line of terminal moraines, reaches a height of 1,000 feet (300 m) with a steep northern slope to the boulder clay plain of the upper Volga River. South of the ridge is the broad, level plain of the Oka River and its major tributary, the Moskva River, on which the capital stands. In the southeast the plain gradually drops to the Meshchera Lowland, an area of extensive swamps. South of the Oka the land rises toward the northern edge of the Central Russian Upland. The climate is continental: winters are prolonged and cold, with January average temperatures of about 14 F (-10 C); summers are mild, with a July average of 64 F (18 C). Average annual precipitation ranges from 18 inches (450 mm) in the southeast to 26 inches (660 mm) on the Klin-Dmitrov Ridge, with the maximum precipitation falling in the summer. The natural vegetation of mixed forest, dominated by spruce, pine, oak, and birch, now survives over only 40 percent of the surface, but almost all remaining forest has been put under protective regulation for preservation. Grass marsh and peat bog occur, especially in the Meshchera Lowland. There are broad floodplain meadows along the rivers. The oblast is heavily industrialized. The area retains its historic importance, dating back to the late 17th century, as Russia's chief producer of textiles, especially of cotton and woolen cloth. Artificial textiles, silk, linen, clothing, and knitwear are also made. The second major branch of industry, engineering, produces a wide range of heavy machinery, machine tools, locomotives, and buses. The chemical industry produces artificial fibres, plastics, and fertilizers. Old established glass and chinaware industries still flourish, especially in the north. Other manufactures include cement, furniture and other timber products, footwear, and foodstuffs. Lignite (brown coal) and phosphorite are mined in the south, and peat is extensively dug to supply peat-burning power stations, especially in the east around Shatura. Local fuel resources have been supplanted by natural-gas pipelines from the northern Caucasus, western Ukraine, and from Saratov to the south; a high-tension grid transmits power from the giant Volga hydroelectric stations. This industrial development means that the oblast is highly urbanized; of its total population, 90 percent lives in more than 140 urban places. The city of Moscow and the satellite towns within its surrounding forest-park greenbelt dominate the urban scene; many workers commute into the city from adjacent areas. Moscow, although the administrative centre of the oblast, is itself independently administered. Agriculture plays a relatively minor role in the economy, engaging only one-fifth of the employed population; only 25 percent of the area is cultivated. Throughout the oblast, but especially around Moscow, dairying and market gardening are well developed to serve the city. In the east the emphasis is on dairy and beef cattle, and pig keeping and poultry farming are widespread. Grain, chiefly rye and oats, is of minor importance; fodder crops occupy more than half the arable land. In the west and north considerable areas are under flax. Reclamation work continues in swampy areas. Communications throughout the oblast are excellent. Trunk railways from all parts of Russia focus on Moscow, and there is a network of electrified suburban lines. The oblast has the highest proportion of asphalt-surfaced roads in Russia. It is also served by waterways, including the Moscow Canal from the capital north to the Volga and the Okaall giving access to the Volga River system. Area 18,100 square miles (47,000 square km). Pop. (1992 est.) 15,664,000. Russian Moskva, city, capital of Russia. The city is located in western Russia about 400 miles (640 km) southeast of St. Petersburg and 600 miles (970 km) east of the Polish border. Moscow lies in the broad, shallow valley of the Moskva River, a tributary of the Oka and thus of the Volga, in the centre of the vast plain of European Russia. This region is one of the most highly developed and densely populated areas of Russia. The climate of Moscow is of the continental type, modified by the temperate influence of westerly winds from the Atlantic Ocean. Winters are cold and long (average January temperature, 14 F ); summers are short and mild (average July temperature, 64 F ). The moderate (23 inches ) annual precipitation occurs predominantly in the summer months, often in brief, heavy downpours. Only a small percentage of Moscow's population is employed in the city centre because of the decentralization of workplaces. Industry is the dominant source of employment, followed by science and research. Although Moscow's role in the country's administration is of prime importance, government as a source of employment is relatively minor. Engineering (production of automobiles and trucks, ball bearings, machine tools, and precision instruments) and metalworking are by far the most important industries. Other important activities include the manufacture of textiles, chemicals and derivative products, and consumer goods (foodstuffs, footwear, and pianos); timber processing; construction; and printing and publishing. Moscow is the headquarters of state insurance and banking organizations. The pattern of rings and radials that marked the historical stages of Moscow's growth remains evident in its modern layout. Successive epochs of development are traced by the Boulevard Ring and the Garden Ring (both following the line of former fortifications), the Moscow Little Ring Railway, and the Moscow Ring Road. From 1960 to the mid-1980s the Ring Road was the administrative limit of the city, but several areas of the largely greenbelt zone beyond the road have been annexed since then. The centre of the city and the historical heart of Moscow is the fortified enclosure of the Kremlin. Its crenellated redbrick walls and 20 towers (19 with spires) were built at the end of the 15th century and were partially rebuilt in later years. Within the walls of the Kremlin are located the meeting places of the government of Russia. Among these are the former Senate building (177688), the Kremlin Great Palace (183849), and the modern Palace of Congresses (196061). Other features within the Kremlin include the central Cathedral Square, around which are grouped three cathedrals, all examples of Russian church architecture at its height in the late 15th and early 16th centuries; a group of palaces of various periods; the white bell tower of Ivan III the Great; the Armoury Museum; and the Arsenal (170236). Along the east wall of the Kremlin lies Red Square, the ceremonial centre of the capital. The Lenin Mausoleum stands beneath the Kremlin walls, and the Church of the Intercession, or Cathedral of St. Basil the Blessed, is at the southern end of the square. The State Department Store, GUM, faces the Kremlin, and the State Historical Museum (187583) closes off the northern end of the square. In the remainder of central Moscow, within the Garden Ring, are buildings representative of every period of Moscow's development from the 15th century to the present. Examples of the Moscow Baroque style, the Classical period, and the revivalist Old Russian style may be found. In the Soviet period streets were widened, and much of the old part of the inner city was demolished and replaced by large office and apartment buildings, government ministries, headquarters of national and international bodies and organizations, hotels and larger shops, and principal cultural centres. Beyond the Garden Ring is a middle zone dominated by 18th- and 19th-century developments; many factories, railway stations, and freight yards are located there. Since 1960 extensive urban renewal has occurred, producing neighbourhoods of high-rise apartment buildings. The outer zone has been the site of modern factory development and extensive housing construction in the 20th century. Beyond the newer suburbs are areas of open land and forest, together with satellite industrial towns and dormitory suburbs. Moscow's inhabitants are overwhelmingly of Russian nationality, but members of more than 100 other nationalities and ethnic groups also live there. Population density, though lowered by outward expansion of the city, has remained high because of the vast number of large apartment buildings. Moscow has a large concentration of educational institutions, and its centres of higher education draw students from throughout Russia. Moscow State University (1755) is the leading educational institution. The city's many specialized educational institutions include the Moscow Timiryazev Academy of Agriculture and the Moscow P.I. Tchaikovsky State Conservatory. Scientific research is conducted by the Academy of Sciences of Russia and many institutions linked to industry. The city's libraries include the V.I. Lenin State Library. Theatre, music, and art are important in the city's life. The State Academic Bolshoi (Great) Theatre (1825), Maly (Little) Theatre, and Moscow Art Theatre are especially renowned. Of the many museums and galleries, the State Pushkin Museum of Fine Arts and the State Tretyakov Gallery are notable. Few people in Moscow own automobiles, necessitating heavy reliance on public transportation provided by the Metropolitan (Metro) subway, buses, streetcars, and trolleybuses. The Metro system, which reflects the city's street patterns, is known for the elaborate architecture of its stations. Moscow is the centre of the country's rail network, on which freight transport is heavily dependent. Trunk rail lines radiate from the city in all directions to major Russian population and industrial centres, to Ukraine, Belarus, and eastern Europe, and to Central Asia. Suburban commuter traffic is facilitated by the Moscow Little Ring Railway (1908) and the Greater Moscow Ring Railway, which link radial lines. Passenger trains connect to destinations throughout Russia and Europe. Moscow is also a major river port and is served by the Moscow Canal. The Volga's various canals link Moscow to all the seas surrounding European Russia. Moscow is the centre of the country's airline network; the Sheremetyevo airport, 24 miles (39 km) north, handles international flights. Area city, 386 square miles (1,000 square km). Pop. (1991 est.) city, 8,801,500. city, seat (1888) of Latah county, northwestern Idaho, U.S. The city is situated on Paradise Creek, in the Palouse country just north of Lewiston, near the Washington border. The area was settled in 1871 and developed as a stagecoach station. The town was probably named by Jonathan Neff, a homesteader who had lived near communities named Moscow in Iowa and Pennsylvania. The establishment of the University of Idaho (1889) was a major factor in its development. The state Bureau of Mines and Geology has its headquarters on the campus, and the university maintains agricultural and other research stations in the area. Agriculture (peas and wheat), lumbering, and clay production are the major economic activities in the surrounding area. St. Joe National Forest is to the northeast. Inc. town, 1887; city, 1893. Pop. (1990) 18,519.