MUHAMMAD

born c. 570, Mecca, Arabia [now in Saudi Arabia] died June 8, 632, Medina in full Abu al-Qasim Muhammad ibn 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Muttalib ibn Hashim founder of the religion of Islam and of the Muslim community. born c. 570, Mecca, Arabia [now in Saudi Arabia] died June 8, 632, Medina in full Abu al-Qasim Muhammad ibn 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Muttalib ibn Hashim founder of the religion of Islam and of the Muslim community. Muhammad initiated religious, social, and cultural developments of monumental significance in the history of mankind. A brief account of the life and works of Muhammad follows. For full treatment, see Islam, Muhammad and the Religion of: Muhammad: the Prophet and his message. During his early life in Mecca his merchant activities resulted in his marriage in about 595 to the wealthy widow Khadijah. He received his prophetic call in about 610 and began his religious activities among his friends and members of his own family. He began preaching publicly in about 613. The rise of Meccan opposition about 615 and the withdrawal of his clan's protection about 619 caused Muhammad to seek aid elsewhere. In 620 he began negotiations with clans in Medina, leading to his emigration (hijrah) there in 622. He eventually went to battle with his Meccan opponents and achieved, at the battle near Badr (624), his first military victory, which he interpreted as divine vindication of his prophethood. He again engaged his Meccan opponents at Uhud (625) and lost, but, in outwitting them at the siege of Medina (627), he further strengthened his position. The Treaty of al-Hudaybiyah (628) forced the Meccans to acknowledge his political authority and grant him concessions. Muhammad's following was meanwhile growing; and in January 630 he entered Mecca with 10,000 men. Because he had also formed alliances with nomadic tribes scattered throughout the peninsula, he left, on his death, most of Arabia united and ready for spreading the faith in Syria and Iraq. Muhammad's divine revelation was recorded after his death in the Qur'an, for which he claimed merely to be the earthly vehicle. Additional reading Biographical works W. Montgomery Watt, Muhammad at Mecca (1953), and Muhammad at Medina (1956, reprinted 1977), a full-scale treatment, summarized in his Muhammad: Prophet and Statesman (1961, reissued 1974); Frants Buhl, . . . Das Leben Muhammeds, 3rd ed. (1961), a German translation of a work published in Danish in 1903 that is still considered reliable; Tor Andrae, Mohammed: The Man and His Faith, trans. by Theophil Menzel (1936, reprinted 1971), chiefly concerned with religious aspects; Ibn Hisham, The Life of Muhammad: A Translation of Is haq's Sirat rasul Allah (1955, reissued 1967), the primary Arabic biography; Nabia Abbott, Aishah: The Beloved of Mohammed (1942, reprinted 1973), a scholarly work; John Bagot Glubb, The Life and Times of Muhammad (1970), a popular account based on the author's familiarity with Arab life. Primary sources The Qur'an, of course, contains basic contemporary materials on Muhammad, but it is difficult to assess them without broader historical knowledge. The vast collections of Traditions (Hadith), or anecdotes about Muhammad's words and deeds, are historically disputable and, besides, seldom tell us anything significant about Muhammad's career. The main sources of historical value are the early biographies (8th9th century), especially the Sirah of Ibn Ishaq, as adapted by Ibn Hisham, and the Maghazi (Expeditions) of al-Waqidi, together with the supplementary materials recorded by his associate Ibn Sa'd. The last item contains much material about the Companions (persons in contact with Muhammad) and thus about the Prophet's relation to and work with them. Some contemporary documents are preserved in the early biographical works, the most important being the so-called Constitution of Medina. The latter is in the translation of Ibn Ishaq cited above; other documents are in Watt's Muhammad at Medina.