NEWTON, SIR ISAAC

born Dec. 25, 1642 [Jan. 4, 1643, New Style], Woolsthorpe, Lincolnshire, Eng. died March 20 [March 31], 1727, London Isaac Newton, portrait by Sir Godfrey Kneller, 1689 English physicist and mathematician, who was the culminating figure of the scientific revolution of the 17th century. In optics, his discovery of the composition of white light integrated the phenomena of colours into the science of light and laid the foundation for modern physical optics. In mechanics, his three laws of motion, the basic principles of modern physics, resulted in the formulation of the law of universal gravitation. In mathematics, he was the original discoverer of the infinitesimal calculus. Newton's Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica (Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy), 1687, was one of the most important single works in the history of modern science. born Dec. 25, 1642, [Jan. 4, 1643, New Style], Woolsthorpe, Lincolnshire, Eng. died March 20 [March 31], 1727, London English physicist and mathematician who invented the infinitesimal calculus, laid the foundations of modern physical optics, and formulated three laws of motion that became basic principles of modern physics and led to his theory of universal gravitation. He is regarded as one of the greatest scientists of all time. Newton received a bachelor's degree at Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1665. During the next two years while the university was closed because of plague, Newton returned home, where he thought deeply about how certain natural phenomena might be explained and formulated the bases of his first major discoveries. He returned in 1667 as a fellow to Trinity College, where he became Lucasian professor of mathematics in 1669. In 1666 Newton discovered the nature of white light by passing a beam of sunlight through a prism. He invented the calculus about 1669 but did not formally publish his ideas until 35 years later. He built the first reflecting telescope in 1668. Newton's most famous publication, Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica (1687; Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy), contains his work on the laws of motion, the theory of tides, and the theory of gravitation. His laws of motion laid the basis for classical mechanics, and the theory of gravity was particularly important in working out the motions of the planets. The Principia has been called one of the most important works of science ever written. In another book, Opticks (1704), Newton described his theory of light as well as the calculus and other mathematical researches. Newton served as warden of the Royal Mint from 1696 and became president of the Royal Society in 1703, holding this office until his death. In 1705 he became the first British scientist ever to receive a knighthood for his researches. Additional reading I. Bernard Cohen, Introduction to Newton's Principia (1971), a history of the development and modification of Newton's major work, is the first volume of Cohen's edition of the Principia and includes variant readings. Additional collections of Newtonian materials, all with valuable introductory essays, include D.T. Whiteside (ed.), The Mathematical Papers of Isaac Newton, 8 vol. (196781); A. Rupert Hall and Marie Boas Hall (eds. and trans.), Unpublished Scientific Papers of Isaac Newton (1962, reissued 1978); I. Bernard Cohen and Robert E. Schofield (eds.), Isaac Newton's Papers & Letters on Natural Philosophy and Related Documents, 2nd ed. (1978); and H.W. Turnbull et al. (eds.), Correspondence, 7 vol. (195977), a collection of Newton's letters, 16611727. Peter Wallis and Ruth Wallis, Newton and Newtoniana, 16721975 (1977), is a bibliography.A standard biography of Newton is David Brewster, Memoirs of the Life, Writings, and Discoveries of Sir Isaac Newton, 2 vol. (1855, reprinted 1965). A more modern work by Richard S. Westfall, Never at Rest: A Biography of Isaac Newton (1980, reissued 1990), also available in a shorter version, The Life of Isaac Newton (1993), is a comprehensive study of Newton in light of new scholarship. Gale E. Christianson, In the Presence of the Creator: Isaac Newton and His Times (1984), includes much contextual information. Frank E. Manuel, A Portrait of Isaac Newton (1968, reprinted 1990), offers a fascinating Freudian analysis, and his The Religion of Isaac Newton (1974) is a thorough discussion of his religious thought. Derek Gjertsen, The Newton Handbook (1986), comprises hundreds of brief entries on topics related to Newton and his era.General treatments of the major problems in Newtonian science are found in Cohen's Franklin and Newton (1956, reissued 1966); John Fauvel (ed.), Let Newton Be! (1988), a collection of essays on Newton and his work, with illustrations; and A. Rupert Hall, Isaac Newton, Adventurer in Thought (1992), a summary of recent research. John Herivel, The Background to Newton's Principia: A Study of Newton's Dynamical Researches in the Years 166484 (1965); and Richard S. Westfall, Force in Newton's Physics (1971), explore the development of Newton's mechanics. Newton's Optiks is treated in Hall's All Was Light (1993). Betty Jo Teeter Dobbs, The Foundations of Newton's Alchemy (1975, reissued 1983), and The Janus Faces of Genius (1991), examine Newton's alchemical studies. Cohen's The Newtonian Revolution (1980), evaluates the historical importance of Newton's style of scientific thought. Alexandre Koyr, Newtonian Studies (1965), contains a collection of essays by one of the master historians of science. Phillip Bricker and R.I.G. Hughes (eds.), Philosophical Perspectives on Newtonian Science (1990), is an advanced treatment, requiring familiarity with Newton's texts. Richard S. Westfall The Editors of the Encyclopdia Britannica Major Works: Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica (1687; Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy, 1729); Opticks (1704); Arithmetica Universalis (1707; Universal Arithmetick, 1720); The Chronology of Ancient Kingdoms Amended (1728); Observations Upon the Prophecies of Daniel and the Apocalypse of St. John (1733).