PANPSYCHISM

(from Greek pan, all; psyche, soul), a philosophical theory asserting that a plurality of separate and distinct psychic beings or minds constitute reality. Panpsychism is distinguished from hylozoism (all matter is living) and pantheism (everything is God). For Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, the 17th-century German philosopher and a typical panpsychist, the world is composed of atoms of energy that are psychic. These monads have different levels of consciousness: in inorganic reality they are sleeping, in animals they are dreaming, in human beings they are waking; God is the fully conscious monad. In 19th-century Germany, Arthur Schopenhauer asserted that the inner nature of all things is willa panpsychistic thesis. And Gustav Theodor Fechner, the founder of experimental psychology and an ardent defender of panpsychism, contended that even trees are sentient and conscious. In the United States, Josiah Royce, an absolute idealist, not only followed Fechner in affirming that heavenly bodies have souls but also adopted a unique theory that each species of animal is a single conscious individualincorporating into itself the individual souls of each of its members. Among other 20th-century philosophers, Alfred North Whitehead may fittingly be called a panpsychist inasmuch as in his philosophy each actual entity is capable of prehensions that involve feelings, emotions, consciousness, and so on.