PAPACY

the office and jurisdiction of the bishop of Rome, or the pope (Latin: papa, from the Greek pappas, father), who presides over the central government of the Roman Catholic church, the largest of the three major branches of Christianity. The term pope was originally applied to all the bishops in the West and also used to describe the patriarch of Alexandria, who still retains the title. In 1073, however, Gregory VII restricted its use to the bishop of Rome. According to the Annuario Pontificio, the papal annual, there have been more than 260 popes since St. Peter, traditionally considered the first pope. Among these, 78 have been proclaimed saints, as have some antipopes (rival claimants to the papal throne who were appointed or elected in opposition to the legitimate pope). Most holders of the office have been either Roman or Italian, with a sprinkling of other Europeans, including one Pole. All have been male, although in the 13th century the legend of Pope Joan appeared. During the course of the 2,000 years in which the papal system and the practice of electing popes in the conclave has evolved, the papacy has played a crucial role in both Western and world history. The history of the papacy can be divided into five major periods: the early papacy, from Peter through Pelagius II (until 590); the medieval papacy, from Gregory I through Boniface VIII (5901303); the Renaissance and Reformation papacy, from Benedict XI through Pius IV (13031565); the early modern papacy, from Pius V through Clement XIV (15661774); and finally the modern papacy, from Pius VI to John Paul II (1775 ). Additional reading General works Interest in the papacy has resulted in a spate of general studies, including P.G. Maxwell-Stuart, Chronicle of the Popes (1997), whose bibliography is alphabetical rather than chronological. Frank J. Coppa (ed.), Encyclopedia of the Vatican and Papacy (1999), focuses on developments from the Renaissance to the present but has entries on all popes, antipopes, and councils. Richard P. McBrien, Lives of the Popes: The Pontiffs from St. Peter to John Paul II (1997, reissued 2000), offers chronologically arranged biographies of the popes, providing useful information on how they are elected and removed from office. J.N.D. Kelly, The Oxford Dictionary of Popes (1986, reissued 1988), also contains chronological coverage of popes and antipopes as well as information on the papacy in transition. Somewhat broader in scope but immensely useful is Richard P. McBrien et al. (eds.), The HarperCollins Encyclopedia of Catholicism (1995), which treats in one volume numerous aspects of the papacy and the church with clarity and balance. Eamon Duffy, Saints & Sinners: A History of the Popes (1997), a companion volume to the History Channel's six-part history of the papacy, is both accurate and readable. Among other recent volumes on the papacy are William J. La Due, The Chair of Saint Peter (1999); and Allan Hall, A History of the Papacy (1998). The early papacy Works on the early papacy include the old but still useful L. (Louis) Duchesne, Early History of the Christian Church, 3 vol. (190924, reissued 1965; trans. from French 4th ed., 190811). John Chapman, Studies on the Early Papacy (1928, reprinted 1971), considers various aspects of this emerging institution; while J. Stevenson (ed.), Creeds, Councils, and Controversies: Documents Illustrative of the History of the Church A.D. 337461, rev. ed. (1989), provides important texts. The volume by James T. Shotwell and Louise Ropes Loomis (eds.), The See of Peter (1927, reissued 1991), offers the translation of the various texts explaining the basis for the Catholic belief in Peter's primacy and the institution of the papacy. Adrian Fortescue, The Early Papacy to the Synod of Chalcedon in 451, 3rd ed. (1997), is a standard source. The medieval papacy The most complete histories of the early medieval papacy are the 18-volume work Horace K. Mann, The Lives of the Popes in the Early Middle Ages, 2nd ed., 18 vol. (192532, reissued in 19 vol., 1979); and The Book of Pontiffs, rev. 2nd ed., trans. from Latin by Raymond Davis (1999). Works on the emergence of the papal state and the development of papal government include Thomas F.X. Noble, The Republic of St. Peter: The Birth of the Papal State, 680825 (1984); Peter Partner, The Lands of St. Peter (1972); and Walter Ullmann, The Growth of Papal Government in the Middle Ages, 3rd ed. (1970). Uta-Renate Blumenthal, The Investiture Controversy: Church and Monarchy from the Ninth to the Twelfth Century (1988, reissued 1991; originally published in German, 1982); and H.E.J. Cowdrey, Pope Gregory VII: 10731085 (1998), provide the best introductions to that important pope and the reform associated with him. The role of the papacy in the later middle ages is covered in Colin Morris, The Papal Monarchy: The Western Church from 1050 to 1250 (1989, reissued 1991); Kenneth Pennington, Pope and Bishops: The Papal Monarchy in the Twelfth and Thirteenth Centuries (1984); and Aristeides Papadakis, The Christian East and the Rise of the Papacy: The Church 10711453 A.D. (1994). The Renaissance and Reformation papacy A comprehensive treatment of the Renaissance and Reformation papacy will be found in Ludwig Pastor, The History of the Popes from the Close of the Middle Ages, trans. from German, 40 vol. (18911953, reprinted 1969). Although an ultramontane account, it provides material and sources not readily available elsewhere. A more concise treatment is available in Henry Marc-Bonnet, Les Papes de la Renaissance (14471527), 2nd ed. updated (1969); as well as in the more recent works by John A.F. Thomson, Popes and Princes, 14171517 (1980); and K.J.P. Lowe, Church and Politics in Renaissance Italy (1993). Further details on the cardinals, curia, and the papal court of the Renaissance age may be found in Peter Partner, The Pope's Men: The Papal Civil Service in the Renaissance (1990); and Charles L. Stinger, The Renaissance in Rome (1985, reissued 1998). There are numerous works on the Reformation, and the antipapal sentiment therein, including A.G. Dickens, The German Nation and Martin Luther (1974, reissued 1976), and Harold J. Grimm, The Reformation Era, 15001650, 2nd ed. (1973). The early modern papacy The Counter-Reformation and the first years of the early modern papacy are covered in Pierre Janelle, The Catholic Reformation (1949, reissued 1971); A.G. Dickens, The Counter Reformation (1968, reissued 1979); and Jean Delumeau, Catholicism Between Luther and Voltaire (1977; originally published in French, 1971). The Council of Trent is the focus of Hubert Jedin, A History of the Council of Trent, trans. from German, 2 vol. (195761), of which only two volumes of the original five have been translated into English. The papal role in the Thirty Years' War is treated in Robert Bireley, Religion and Politics in the Age of the Counterreformation (1981). Raphael H. Song, The Sacred Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith (1961), considers the papal role in the missionary effort. The entire period is covered in A.D. Wright, The Early Modern Papacy: From the Council of Trent to the French Revolution, 15641789 (2000). The modern papacy For the modern papacy, a good starting point and recent overview of the entire period is offered in Frank J. Coppa, The Modern Papacy Since 1789 (1998). More concentrated in its approach is Owen Chadwick, A History of the Popes, 18301914 (1998), the best survey of the 19th-century papacy. Works on the revolutionary period include H. Daniel-Rops, The Church in an Age of Revolution, 17891870 (1965, reissued in 2 vol., 1967; trans of vol. 1 of L'glise des revolutions, 3 vol., 196065); Edward Elton Young Hales, Revolution and Papacy, 17691846 (1960, reissued 1966); and Owen Chadwick, The Popes and European Revolution (1981). The role of the papacy in the age of reaction is explored in Roger Aubert et al., The Church Between Revolution and Restoration (1981; trans. of vol. 1 of Die Kirche im der Gegenwart, 2 vol., 197073). The long, crucial, and controversial pontificate of Pius IX is considered in Edward Elton Young Hales, Pio Nono, 2nd ed. (1956, reissued 1962); and Frank J. Coppa, Pope Pius IX (1979). Twentieth-century developments are explored in J. Derek Holmes, The Papacy in the Modern World, 19141978 (1981); and Carlo Falconi, The Popes in the Twentieth Century (1968; originally published in Italian, 1967), among others. Peter Hebblethwaite, John XXIII: Pope of the Council (1984, reissued 1994), and Paul VI: The First Modern Pope (1993), are important and scholarly biographies, if poorly edited ones. There are innumerable biographies of Pope John Paul II, but to date only Tad Szulc, Pope John Paul II (1995), claims an official status. Most of the material in the multivolume collection of Claudia Carlen, The Papal Encyclicals, 5 vol. (1981, reissued 1990), provides essential documents of the modern popes from Pius VI through the first years of the pontificate of John Paul II. Frank J. Coppa