PEDAGOGY

study of teaching methods, including the aims of education and the ways in which such goals may be achieved. The field relies heavily on educational psychology, or theories about the way in which learning takes place. Additional reading Works on philosophy and theories of teaching include Israel Scheffler, In Praise of the Cognitive Emotions and Other Essays in the Philosophy of Education (1991); Richard Pratte, Philosophy of Education: Two Traditions (1992); and Kenneth A. Strike and Jonas F. Soltis, The Ethics of Teaching, 2nd ed. (1992). A classic approach to the aesthetic side of teaching is Gilbert Highet, The Art of Teaching (1950, reprinted 1989). John Dewey, Democracy and Education (1916, reissued 1986); and John Dewey et al., The Relation of Theory to Practice in the Education of Teachers, ed. by Charles A. McMurray (1904), are the source of much of contemporary teaching thought. Theories of education historically are treated by John S. Brubacher, A History of the Problems of Education, 2nd ed. (1966); Robert R. Rusk and James Scotland, Doctrines of the Great Educators, 5th ed. (1979), a clear account of the contributions to educational theory by leading exponents from early times; and Gordon H. Bower and Ernest R. Hilgard, Theories of Learning, 5th ed. (1981), a standard work on learning theoriesbehaviourist, instinct, and those of the Gestalt, cognitive, and functional schools. The relationship of cognitive science to teaching is increasingly important. Basic sources include Jean Piaget, The Construction of Reality in the Child (1954, reissued 1986; originally published in French, 1937); Benjamin S. Bloom (ed.), Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: The Classification of Educational Goals, vol. 1, Cognitive Domain (1956, reissued 1984), a comprehensive analysis of the cognitive objectives of education; Jerome S. Bruner, Toward a Theory of Instruction (1966), the author's attempt to translate his ideas about cognitive development into a theory of school instruction, following his earlier Process of Education (1960, reissued 1977); and, more recently, W.K. Estes, Classification and Cognition (1994). Different theoretical designs are embodied in Jenny Cook-Gumperz (ed.), The Social Construction of Literacy (1986); and Courtney B. Cazden, Classroom Discourse (1988).