PHENOMENALISM

a philosophical theory of perception and the external world. Its essential tenet is that propositions about material objects are reducible to propositions about actual and possible sensations, or sense data, or appearances. According to the phenomenalists, a material object is not a mysterious something "behind" the appearances that people experience in sensation. If it were, the material world would be unknowable; indeed, the term matter itself would be unintelligible unless it somehow could be defined by reference to sense experiences. In speaking about a material object, then, reference must be made to a very large group or system of many different possibilities of sensation. Whether actualized or not, these possibilities continue during a certain period of time. When the object is observed, some of these possibilities are actualized, though not all of them. So long as the material object is unobserved, none of them is actualized. In this way, the phenomenalist claims, an "empirical cash value" can be given to the concept of matter by analyzing it in terms of sensations. Some philosophers have raised the objection against phenomenalism that, if these hypothetical propositions play such an important role in the phenomenalist analysis-analyzing all material-object expressions in terms of actual and possible sense experiences-it nonetheless remains difficult to avoid using material-object expressions in "if . . . then" clauses, which would render any analysis circular. A second and even more important objection is that it is very difficult to believe that categorical propositions about material objects (e.g., "There is a fire in the next room") can be analyzed without remainder into sets of hypotheticals or "if . . . then" clauses; i.e., that a statement about what there actually is can be reduced to a set of statements about what there would be if certain (nonexistent) conditions were to be fulfilled.