PHOTOMETRY

in astronomy, the measurement of the brightness of stars and other celestial objects (nebulae, galaxies, planets, etc.). Such measurements can yield large amounts of information on the objects' structure, temperature, distance, age, etc. The earliest observations of the apparent brightness of the stars were made by Greek astronomers. The system used by Hipparchus about 130 BC divided the stars into classes called magnitudes; the brightest were described as being of first magnitude, the next class were second magnitude, and so on in equal steps down to the faintest stars visible to the unaided eye, which were said to be of sixth magnitude. The application of the telescope to astronomy in the 17th century led to the discovery of many fainter stars, and the scale was extended downward to seventh, eighth, etc., magnitudes. In the early 19th century it was established by experimenters that the apparently equal steps in brightness were in fact steps of constant ratio in the light energy received and that a difference in brightness of five magnitudes was roughly equivalent to a ratio of 100. In 1856 Norman Robert Pogson suggested that this ratio should be used to define the scale of magnitude, so that a brightness difference of one magnitude was a ratio of 2.512 in intensity and a five-magnitude difference was a ratio of (2.51188)5, or precisely 100. Steps in brightness of less than a magnitude were denoted by using decimal fractions. The zero point on the scale was chosen to cause the minimum change for the large number of stars traditionally established as of sixth magnitude, with the result that several of the brightest stars proved to have magnitudes less than 0 (i.e., negative values). The introduction of photography provided the first nonsubjective means of measuring the brightness of stars. The fact that photographic plates are sensitive to violet and ultraviolet radiation, rather than to the green and yellow wavelengths to which the eye is most sensitive, led to the establishment of two separate magnitude scales, the visual and the photographic. The difference between the magnitudes given by the two scales for a given star was later termed the colour index and was recognized to be a measure of the temperature of the star's surface. Since the 1940s astronomical photometry has been vastly extended in sensitivity and wavelength range, especially by the use of photoelectric rather than photographic detectors. The faintest stars now observed have magnitudes around 24. Magnitudes are now measured not only in the visible part of the spectrum but also in the ultraviolet and infrared. In photoelectric photometry, the image of a single star is passed through a small diaphragm in the focal plane of the telescope. After further passing through an appropriate filter and a field lens, the light of the stellar image passes into a photomultiplier, a device that produces a relatively strong electric current from a weak light input. The output current may then be measured in a variety of ways; this type of photometry owes its extreme accuracy to the highly linear relation between the amount of incoming radiation and the electric current it produces, and to the precise techniques that can be used to measure the current. Photographic photometry, by contrast, relies on visual comparisons of images of starlight recorded on photographic plates. It is considerably less accurate than photoelectric photometry because the complex relationships between the size and density of photographic images of stars and the brightness of those optical images are not subject to full control or accurate calibration. Because of this, photographic photometry continues in use only in a few special areas of astronomical research, such as measuring the relative magnitudes of each component of a close visual binary star system. The dominant photometric classification system, the UBV system introduced in the early 1950s by Harold L. Johnson and William Wilson Morgan, uses three wave bands, one in the ultraviolet, one in the blue, and the other in the dominant visual range. More elaborate systems can use many more measurements, usually by dividing the visible and ultraviolet regions into narrower slices or by extension of the range into the infrared. Routine accuracy of measurement is now of the order of 0.01 magnitude, and the principal experimental difficulty in much modern work is that the sky itself is luminous, due principally to photochemical reactions in the upper atmosphere. The limit of observations is now about 1/1,000 of the sky brightness in visible light and approaches 1/1,000,000 of the sky brightness in the infrared. Photometric work is always a compromise between the time taken for an observation and its complexity. A small number of broad-band measurements can be done quickly, but as more colours are used for a set of magnitude determinations for a star, more can be deduced about the nature of that star. The simplest measurement is that of effective temperature, while data over a wider range allow the observer to separate giant from dwarf stars, to assess whether a star is metal-rich or deficient, to determine the surface gravity, and to estimate the effect of interstellar dust on a star's radiation.