PREDESTINATION

in Christianity, the doctrine that God has eternally chosen those whom he intends to save. In modern usage, predestination is distinct from both determinism and fatalism and is subject to the free decision of the human moral will; but the doctrine also teaches that salvation is due entirely to the eternal decree of God. In its fundamentals, the problem of predestination is as universal as religion itself, but the emphasis of the New Testament on the divine plan of salvation has made the issue especially prominent in Christian theology. Christian doctrines of predestination may be considered explanations of the words of the Apostle Paul, For those whom he foreknew he also predestined to be conformed to the image of his Son, in order that he might be the first-born among many brethren. And those whom he predestined he also called; and those whom he called he also justified; and those whom he justified he also glorified (Rom. 8:29-30). Three types of predestination doctrine, with many variations, have developed. One theory (associated with Semi-Pelagianism, some forms of nominalism, and Arminianism) makes foreknowledge the ground of predestination and teaches that God predestined to salvation those whose future faith and merits he foreknew. At the opposite extreme is the doctrine of double predestination, commonly identified with John Calvin but more correctly associated with the Synod of Dort, and appearing also in some of the writings of St. Augustine and Martin Luther and in the thought of the Jansenists. According to this doctrine, God has determined from eternity whom he will save and whom he will damn, regardless of their faith, love, or merit, or lack thereof. A third doctrine was set forth in other writings of St. Augustine and Luther, in the decrees of the second Council of Orange (529), and in the thought of St. Thomas Aquinas. It ascribes the salvation of man to the unmerited grace of God and thus to predestination, but it attributes divine reprobation to man's sin and guilt.