PROVENAL LITERATURE

the body of writings in the Occitan, or Provenal, language of Provence and neighbouring regions in southeastern France. Provenal literature flourished from the 11th to the 14th century, when its poetry reached rare heights of virtuosity and variety in its celebration of courtly, or chivalric, love. The oldest extant piece of Provenal verse probably belongs to the 10th century. A more important fragment is the beginning of an anonymous adaptation in Occitans of Boethius' treatise On the Consolation of Philosophy. The earliest work of any importance in Provenal literature is the poetry of William IX, duke of Aquitaine (Guilhem VII of Poitiers), who was active at the close of the 11th century. His extant poems consist of 11 strophic pieces (in stanza form with repeated lines) that were meant to be sung. Several were love songs, and the most important expressed the writer's regret for the frivolity of his past and apprehension at bidding farewell to his country and his son. The contrast between Boethius' poem and the stanzas of William IX indicates that, by the 11th century, Provenal poetry was developing in various directions. The origins of the earliest Provenal poets were indicated by contemporary Latin chroniclers, who mentioned ioculares, men of a class not highly regarded, whose profession consisted in amusing their audience by jugglers' tricks, by exhibiting performing animals, or by recitation and song. These performers were called joglars in Provenal and jongleurs in French. From among them rose the troubadours, who originally may have been joglars skilled in poetry. But by the end of the 11th century a clear distinction had been drawn between the lower sort of joglars and the more refined troubadours, who composed their works in the elegant and refined literary language of the aristocracy and the court. Indeed, the troubadours comprised not only the more accomplished poets of the upper ranks of society but also some of the great nobles who wrote poetry themselves. The lyric love poems of the troubadours became the crowning glory of medieval Provenal literature. The troubadours' love songs reflected social conditions in the Midi (southern France) under feudalism. The daughters of territorial lords were married for political reasons and welcomed the attentions of courtiers, who addressed songs of love to them. As the poets were usually far beneath the ladies in social status, they wrote in a most guarded style. This profession of courtly, or chivalrous, love became a matter of convention, but the sentiments of respect, passion, and devotion thus addressed to noble ladies in the songs of the troubadours were to have a lasting influence on both European literature and social mores. William IX had been the first of the troubadours. In the first part of the 12th century, Cercamon, a Gascon, composed pastorals, and his pupil Marcabrun wrote about 40 pieces, several of which were concerned with contemporary history. Jaufr Rudel of Blaye, a nostalgic singer of the amor de lonh (distant love), is scarcely less famous. Slightly later in the same century Bernard de Ventadour composed songs of elegant simplicity, some of which may be taken as perfect specimens of Provenal poetry. His contemporary Bertran de Born is famous for the part he is said to have played both with his sword and his sirventes (a form of Provenal lay) in the struggle between Henry II of England and his rebel sons. Other troubadours include Arnaut Daniel, a master of complicated versification and difficult form; Guiraut de Bornelh, an acknowledged master of trobar clus, or close style, though he also composed songs of charming simplicity; Arnaut de Mareuil, noteworthy for his exquisite delicacy of sentiment; the somewhat eccentric Peire Vidal of Toulouse; the chivalrous Raimbaut de Vaqueyras; Folquet de Marseille, a monk who became bishop of Toulouse; the truculent monk of Montaudon; and the satirical Peire Cardenal. The decline and fall of Provenal literature was due mainly to political causes. When in the first decades of the 13th century the Albigensian Crusade had ruined a large number of nobles of the Midi and reduced them to poverty, the profession of troubadour ceased to be lucrative, and many troubadours went to the north of Spain and Italy, where Provenal poetry was esteemed. Following their example, other poets began to compose in Provenal, but from the middle of the 13th century these poets began to abandon the foreign tongue and took to the local dialects. About the same time in the Midi itself, poetry had died out save in a few places, and in the 14th century works were mainly for instruction and edification: the poetry of the troubadours was dead. Aside from the troubadours' love poetry, medieval Provenal literature has some prominent specimens in other literary genres. Among these are the chansons de geste (poems in stanzas of indefinite length, with a single rhyme), the most notable of which is the Girart de Roussillon, a poem of 10,000 lines which related the struggles of Charles Martel with his vassal Gerard of Roussillon. Several Provenal romances of adventure have also survived: Jaufr, Blandin de Cornoalha, and Guillem de la Barra. Connected with the romance of adventure was the novel (in Provenal, plural novas), which was originally an account of a recent event. Some of them could be ranked with the most graceful works in Provenal literature. Two were by the Catalan author Ramon Vidal de Besal: the Castia-gilos was an elegant treatment of a story of the husband who disguises himself as his wife's lover, and the other was a recital of a question of the law of love. Mention may also be made of Novas del Papagai by Arnaut de Carcasss, in which the principal character is an eloquent parrot, who assists his master's amorous enterprises. Novas came to be extended to the proportions of a long romance, and Flamenca was a poem of more than 8,000 lines in which a lady by ingenious devices eludes the vigilance of her jealous husband: no book in medieval literature had more quickness of intellect or was more instructive about the manners and usages of polite society in the 13th century. Provenal didactic and religious poetry includes several biographies of saints. Dramatic literature in Occitan consisted of short mysteries and miracle plays belonging to the 15th or 16th century. Aside from a few treatises on grammar and the poetic arts, relatively few notable works of prose literature were produced in Occitan in the medieval period. By the late 15th century Provenal literature had waned without fading entirely, and in the following three centuries there was a succession of works in Provenal, chiefly of a didactic and edifying character, which served to keep alive some kind of literary tradition. After the French Revolution, scholars of Provenal literature occupied themselves by studying the brilliant literary traditions of the Middle Ages. This revival of interest in Provenal literature culminated in 1854 with the founding of a literary association known as the Felibrige. This group of poets and orthographers was dedicated to reviving the literary use of Occitans and to the purification of that language. By writing in their native dialect, the members of the Felibrige showed a desire to stir the Provenal nation to renewed awareness of its glory. The group's founder was Joseph Roumanille, but its most prominent and talented member was the poet Frdric Mistral, whose finest works (the long narrative poems Mirio and Calendau , among others) towered above those of his fellows. Mistral received the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1904. Andr Berry The Editors of the Encyclopdia Britannica