PURIFICATION RITE

any of the ceremonial acts or customs employed in an attempt to reestablish lost purity or to create a higher degree of purity in relation to the sacred (the transcendental realm) or the social and cultural realm. They are found in all known cultures and religions, both ancient and modern, preliterate and sophisticated, and assume a wide variety of types and forms. Additional reading Few works deal directly with purification rites. Mary Douglas, Purity and Danger (1966), is a major work dealing with the problems of purity and impurity. Hutton Webster, Taboo: A Sociological Study (1942); and Franz Steiner, Taboo (1956), deal with pollution taboos as part of the general field of ritual prohibitions. In the Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, 10:455505 (1919, reprinted 1955), the article Purification has many examples. Religious texts are among the best available sources: the Old Testament; the Egyptian Book of the Dead; and Friedrich Max Mller (ed.), The Sacred Books of the East, 51 vol. (18791904), available in many later editions. The latter includes texts of Hinduism, Buddhism, Islam, Zoroastrianism, and Taoism. For a good summary of Zoroastrian purification rites, see J.J. Modi, The Religious Ceremonies and Customs of the Parsees (1922, reprinted 1979; 2nd ed., 1937). For ancient Greece, see Louis Moulinier, Le Pur et l'impur dans la pense des Grecs, d'Homre Aristote (1952); and Jane Harrison, Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion, 3rd ed. (1922). For excellent synopses of African thought systems, see Daryll Forde (ed.), African Worlds (1963); and, for a North American tribe, see Gladys Reichard, Navaho Religion, 2nd ed. (1963). Margaret Mead, Sex and Temperament in Three Primitive Societies (1935; reprinted, 1968), brings together material on three Pacific Islands societies.