T'ANG DYNASTY

Pinyin Tang (618907), Chinese dynasty that succeeded the short-lived Sui dynasty and developed a successful form of government and administration on the Sui model and stimulated a cultural and artistic flowering that amounted to a golden age. The first T'ang emperor, Li Yan, known by his temple name Kao-tsu, began as a contender for the rule of the Sui dynasty, of which he had been an official. He overcame various rivals and rebels, and by 621 he controlled China's eastern plain; in 624 he added the North and South, although some rebels remained in the North throughout the dynasty. He directed many complex military operations in his tenure and established the basic institutions of the T'ang state. He emulated the first Sui emperor in establishing a highly competent bureaucracy, and he adopted the same pattern of local administration. Because the state was bankrupt, the administration was kept small, simple, and cheap. The land-distribution system of the Sui was adopted to give every taxable male a plot and to minimize the number of large estates, and Li Yan also took on the Sui system of taxation. He created mints and established a copper coinage that lasted throughout the dynasty. He recodified the laws with stated penalties for specific acts and provided for their review every 20 years. The second emperor, Li Shih-min, known as T'ai-tsung, succeeded to the throne in 626 by murdering two brothers and forcing the abdication of his father, but he became one of the greatest emperors China has known. He adjusted the balance of the court aristocracy to equalize regional influences and expanded both the Sui use of examinations in literature and culture for hiring civil servants and the Sui system of high-quality schools at the capital. He further enshrined the classics and published a standard edition. He defeated his eastern Turkish enemies and spread disunity among those in the west, expanding China farther westward than ever before. One of the most remarkable women in Chinese history, Wu-hou, intrigued her way into the role of empress during the reign of Kao-tsung (649683). She took up residence in Lo-yang (the western capital) and ruthlessly aggrandized her role by inflating the bureaucracy during Kao-tsung's illness. Despite her excesses, she maintained a steady grip on the government until she was in her 80s, when she was forced to abdicate. The dynasty reached the peak of its wealth and power during the early 8th century, which was a golden age for its arts. The aristocracy, scattered, murdered, and incarcerated under the empress Wu-hou, was restored and oversaw an era of reform. In the second half of the 8th century, however, rebellion broke out in the northeast and spread rapidly, forcing the emperor Hsan-tsung to flee west to Szechwan. Although the rebellion was finally suppressed, in its wake came a period of provincial separation and later rebellion. By 818 the emperor Hsien-tsung had restored the authority of the empire throughout most of the country. In the second half of the 9th century, the government grew weaker, and rebellions recurred; the dynasty declined until 907, when it collapsed into a scattering of independent kingdoms that withstood unification for more than 50 years. The years of the T'ang were brilliant times for the arts and culture. Major imperial ceremonies saw a revival and elaboration of the ancient orchestras and companies of courtly dancers. The musicians played on bells, stone chimes, flutes, zithers, and drums. China in this period was hospitable to foreign ideas, as Arabian and Persian seamen roved its ports and western music and dance found their way into China from Central Asia. In the taverns of the western capital at Ch'ang-an (Sian), western songs and dances were performed to the accompaniment of western musicians on strange instruments. Exotic troupes of dancing girls became the subject of paintings and reproduction in clay figurines. The Pear Garden at the palace was reserved for training musicians and dancers. Foreign music became a third category of music, in addition to court and common music. Before the end of the dynasty there were 10 musical categories, several of them foreign. Although no orchestral scores survive, the music for several solo pieces has been found. Late T'ang paintings show imperial entertainments with ensembles of strings, winds, and percussion, and choreographic plans for bands and dancers have also been preserved. Poetry was the greatest glory of the period. All the verse forms of the past were used and refined, and new ones developed. Regulated verse (l shih) and an abbreviated, truncated verse (cheh ch) were introduced and became widely popular. Nearly 50,000 works by some 2,000 T'ang poets have been preserved. Prose stylists were concerned with lyrical expression and rhetorical devices for artistic effect. Heroic sculpture of Buddhas was a feature of the middle T'ang; and, although no works of this size and period survive in China, several do in Japan, which was profoundly influenced by the administration, arts, culture, and religion of the T'ang dynasty. Painting played a major role in the culture of the era, and painters were important court figures. One of the T'ang ministers of state, Yen Li-pen, is far better known as a painter than as a statesman. The greatest master of figure painting of the dynasty was Wu Tao-tzu, who did 300 wall paintings in temples at Lo-yang and Ch'ang-an. A painter of horses was a great favourite in an era when military steeds were a matter of life and death and when court ladies played a form of polo. Landscape painting was dominated by Wang Wei, who was also an official at the court in the western capital. A new freedom with brushwork developed to provide a wider range of effects of texture and tone. Ch'an, or Zen, Buddhist painters brought still further freedom with the brush to religious painting. Pottery made huge strides after the sterility of the Six Dynasties period. Finishes in white porcelain, three-colour pottery and figurines, stoneware with a rich black glaze, and a type of celadon all were developed by T'ang potters; and, in keeping with the general interest in things foreign, their wares were often in foreign shapes and followed foreign motifs. Great volumes of tomb figurines were produced. Metalwork and jewelry of the period included much silver. Ritual objects included foreign shapes among the traditional Chinese forms. Silver and gold vessels were no longer cast but raised into bowl shape by hammering thin sheets; such vessels for drinking were double thicknesses soldered together with an insulating layer of air between them. Decorated bronze mirrors were also popular. The T'ang dynastylike mostrose in duplicity and murder, and it subsided into a kind of anarchy; but at its apex in the early 8th century, the splendour of its arts and its cultural milieu made it a model for the world.