THEBES

ancient Egyptian Wase, or Wo'se, or (from c. 21st century BC) Nowe, or Nuwe, one of the famed cities of antiquity, the capital of the ancient Egyptian empire at its heyday. Thebes lay on either side of the Nile River at approximately latitude 26 N. The modern town of Luxor, or Al-Uqsur, which occupies part of the site, is 419 miles (675 km) south of Cairo. Ancient Thebes covered an area of some 36 square miles (93 square km). The main part of the city was situated along the Nile's east bank; along the west bank was the necropolis, or city of the deadan area containing the royal tombs and mortuary temples, as well as the houses of those priests, soldiers, craftsmen, and labourers who were devoted to the service of the Egyptian rulers. The Thebes areaincluding Luxor, the Valley of the Kings, the Valley of the Queens, and Karnakwas designated a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1979. Modern Greek Thvai major city of Boeotia noms (department), northwest of Athens, Greece, and one of the chief cities and powers of ancient Greece. On the acropolis of the ancient city stands the present commercial and agricultural centre of Thebes. It is situated on a low ridge dividing the surrounding plain; the modern city is the seat of the Greek Orthodox bishop of Thebes and Levdhia. It has abundant springs of water, the most famous in antiquity being called Dirce, and the fertile plain in the vicinity is well irrigated. Thebes was the seat of the legendary king Oedipus and the locale of most of the ancient Greek tragediesnotably Aeschylus' Seven Against Thebes and Sophocles' Oedipus the King and Antigoneand of other compilations about the fate of Oedipus, his wife-mother, and his children. Said to have been occupied originally by Ectenians under the leadership of Ogyges (Ogygus), Thebes is called Ogygion by some classical poets. Greek legend attributes the founding of the ancient citadel, Cadmea, to the brother of Europa, Cadmus, who was aided by the Spartoi (a race of warriors sprung from dragon's teeth that Cadmus had sown). The building of the celebrated seven-gated wall of Thebes is usually attributed to Amphion, who is said to have charmed the stones into moving by the playing of his lyre. Archaeological evidence indicates that the site was inhabited in both the early and late Bronze ages. The ruined 15th-century-BC Minoan-style palace at Cadmea was adorned with frescoes of Theban women in Minoan dress; some Cretan vases also suggest contacts between Thebes and Knossos in the period 14501400 BC. In 1970 clay tablets confirming Mycenaean-Minoan links were found, while the discovery of Mesopotamian cylinder seals in 1964 strengthened the theory that Cadmus introduced writing to Greece. Thebes rivaled Argols as a centre of Mycenaean power until its palace and walls were destroyed shortly before the Trojan War (c. 1200 BC). According to tradition, the city was destroyed by the sons of the Seven about whom Aeschylus wrote. Knowledge of succeeding centuries is sparse. Immigration produced a Boeotian mixed stock, including the Aegeids, a Dorian clan, and an oligarchy of large estates was regulated by laws passed about 725. In the 6th century a league of Boeotian cities was formed; it was dominated by Thebes from the 5th century. Hostility to Athens over mutual interest in the Plataea district led in the 5th century to Theban collaboration with Persia and, later, with Sparta. A Theban suggestion at the end (404) of the Peloponnesian War that the Spartans annihilate the Athenians was rebuffed; the two powers clashed, and Sparta, winning, disbanded the Boeotian League (386) and occupied Cadmea (382). Revolting after 379, Thebes reorganized the league along democratic lines and defeated Sparta at Tegyra (375) and Leuctra (371). For the next 10 years Thebes was the first military power in Greece; its commander Epaminondas invaded the Peloponnese (370362) and died at the Battle of Mantineia (362). A rapid decline followed, and in 346 civil strife forced Thebes to admit Philip II of Macedon. Still fickle, Thebes broke confidence with Philip and in 338 was defeated at Chaeronea; the Boeotian League was again dissolved, and Thebes was garrisoned by Macedonian troops. After a massacre and almost total destruction in a fruitless uprising (336) against Alexander the Great, Cassander rebuilt Thebes in 316. The city's fortunes wavered between independence and subjugation. From about 280 it was once more part of the revived Boeotian League, forming regional alliances as required. For its participation in the Achaean revolt, the city eventually fell under Rome and was stripped of half its territory in 86 by the Roman general Sulla. The historian Pausanias (2nd century AD) reported Cadmea still inhabited, but the town was overrun by a succession of conquerers and adventurers. In Byzantine and Frankish times it prospered as an administrative and commercial centre, particularly for silk weaving. It had a large Jewish colony in the 12th century. Throughout the Turkish occupation (14351829), it was only a poor village, and in the 19th century it was destroyed by an earthquake and rebuilt. Few artifacts of its earliest days survive. The present city is the chief market town of a rich agricultural plain, trading in wheat, olive oil, wine, tobacco, and cotton, as well as silk manufacture. It is linked by rail to Athens. Among the few ancient ruins are remnants of the city walls, the palace of Cadmus (c. 14501350 BC), and the Ismeneion, or temple of Apollo Ismenius. Pop. (1991 prelim.) 18,191. Additional reading Jean Capart and Marcelle Werbrouck, Thebes: The Glory of a Great Past (1926; originally published in French, 1925), is a good general description of the antiquities of Thebes. A more recent work, embodying research carried out since World War II, is the lavishly illustrated book by Charles F. Nims, Thebes of the Pharaohs: Pattern for Every City (1965). Among the many archaeological publications, special mention should be made of W.M. Flinders Petrie, Six Temples at Thebes (1897); H.E. Winlock, Excavations at Deir el Bahri, 19111931 (1942); Edouard Naville, The Temple of Deir el Bahari, 2 vol. in 7 (18941908), and The XIth Dynasty Temple at Deir el-Bahari, 3 vol. (190713); and Harold Hayden Nelson et al., Medinet Habu, 8 vol. (193070). Extensive references may be found in the detailed and invaluable volumes of Bertha Porter and Rosalind L.B. Moss, Topographical Bibliography of Ancient Egyptian Hieroglyphic Texts, Reliefs, and Paintings, vol. 1, in 2 parts; and Bertha Porter, The Theban Necropolis, 2nd ed., rev. and augmented (196072). The cult of Amon at Thebes is the subject of Eberhard Otto and Max Hirmer, Egyptian Art and the Cults of Osiris and Amon (1967; originally published in German, 1966). Lise Manniche, Lost Tombs: A Study of Certain Eighteenth Dynasty Monuments in the Theban Necropolis (1988), uses descriptions left by early travelers to Egypt to reconstruct tombs that are now lost, and her City of the Dead: Thebes in Egypt (1987), covers the 5,000-year history of Thebes. Margaret Stefana Drower The Editors of the Encyclopdia Britannica