TUNISIA

officially Republic of Tunisia, Arabic Al-Jumhuriyah at-Tunisiyah country of North Africa. Tunisia is strategically important in the Mediterranean region, where its location and ease of access have made it vulnerable to virtually every historical influence in the area. It is bounded by Algeria to the west and southwest, Libya to the southeast, and the Mediterranean Sea to the east and north. It has an area of 63,378 square miles (164,150 square km); the capital is Tunis (Tunis). With its more than 800 miles (1,300 km) of coastline, Tunisia has often been compared to the hull of a ship, solidly moored on the continent but also freely washed by the waves; in consequence, its destiny, as its leaders never tire of repeating, is at once Mediterranean and Maghrebian. Because the Maghreb constitutes a single geographic entity, the largely undemarcated boundaries separating Tunisia from Libya and Algeria do not assume the form of any natural barrier but, rather, have been shaped by the vicissitudes of history. officially Republic of Tunisia, Arabic Al-Jumhuriyah at-Tunisiyah country of North Africa, lying along the Mediterranean coast. The capital is Tunis. It is the smallest country of the region, with a maximum length from north to south of 470 miles (756 km) and a maximum width from east to west of 218 miles (351 km). Tunisia is bordered by Algeria to the west and southwest, Libya to the southeast, and the Mediterranean Sea to the east and north. It has a 750-mile- (1,200-kilometre-) long coastline. Area 59,664 square miles (154,530 square km). Pop. (1992 est.) 8,413,000. Additional reading Geography General texts are Harold D. Nelson (ed.), Tunisia: A Country Study, 3rd ed. (1988); Russell A. Stone and John Simmons (eds.), Change in Tunisia: Studies in the Social Sciences (1976); and Emma C. Murphy, Economic and Political Change in Tunisia: From Bourguiba to Ben Ali (1999). On geography, useful works include Wilfrid Knapp, Tunisia (1970); Ahmed Kassab and Hafedh Sthom, Gographie de la Tunisie: le pays et les hommes (1980); Mohamed Fakhfakh (ed.), Atlas de Tunisie (1979); and Horst Mensching, Tunesien: eine geographische Landeskunde, 3rd rev. ed. (1979). Other specialized volumes include James Allman, Social Mobility, Education, and Development in Tunisia (1979); Ghazi Duwaji, Economic Development in Tunisia (1967); and I. William Zartman (ed.), Tunisia: The Political Economy of Reform (1991). On the Islamist challenge in Tunisia, good articles include I. William Zartman, The Challenge of Democratic Alternatives in the Maghrib, in John Ruedy (ed.), Islamism and Secularism in North Africa (1994, reissued 1996). A useful article on political change and reform is L. Anderson, Political Pacts, Liberalism, and Democracy: The Tunisian National Pact of 1988, Government and Opposition, 26:244260 (Spring 1991). Discussions on economic developments are provided by Abdeljabar Bsaies, Programme d'ajustement structurel et croissance en Tunisie, Revue tunisienne d'economie, 5:2184 (1994); and Bchir Chourou, The Free-Trade Agreement Between Tunisia and the European Union, The Journal of North African Studies, 3(1):2556 (Spring 1998). History Kenneth J. Perkins, Tunisia: Crossroads of the Islamic and European Worlds (1986), summarizes history, socioeconomics, and politics from pre-Islamic times to the mid-1980s. L. Carl Brown, The Tunisia of Ahmad Bey, 18371855 (1974), studies in detail the beginnings of Westernization. Mezri Bdira, Relations internationales et sous-dveloppement: la Tunisie, 18571864 (1978), clarifies the policies of Tunisian leadership during this period. Arnold H. Green, The Tunisian Ulama, 18731915 (1978), shows well how the religious institutions fitted into society in this period of transformation. Lucette Valensi, Tunisian Peasants in the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries (1985; originally published in French, 1977), is a thorough study firmly based on material in Tunisian national archives. Dwight L. Ling, Tunisia: From Protectorate to Republic (1967), provides an overview. Charles A. Micaud, Tunisia: The Politics of Modernization (1964), reviews ideological change during the protectorate and the Neo-Destour Party. Clement Henry Moore, Tunisia Since Independence: The Dynamics of One-Party Government (1965, reprinted 1982), is a thorough political study of Tunisia under Habib Bourguiba. Other political studies include Lisa Anderson, The State and Social Transformation in Tunisia and Libya, 18301980 (1986); and Norma Salem, Habib Bourguiba, Islam, and the Creation of Tunisia (1984). A very accessible biography of Bourguiba is Derek Hopwood, Habib Bourguiba of Tunisia: The Tragedy of Longevity (1992). Works on politics include Eva Bellin, Civil Society in Formation: Tunisia, in Augustus Richard Norton (ed.), Civil Society in the Middle East, vol. 1, pp. 120147 (1995); I. William Zartman (ed.), Tunisia: The Political Economy of Reform (1991); and Dirk Vandewalle, Ben Ali's New Era: Pluralism and Economic Privatization in Tunisia, in Henri J. Barkey (ed.), The Politics of Economic Reform in the Middle East (1992). Information on the rise and challenge of Islamists in Tunisia can be found in Francois Burgat and William Dowell, The Islamic Movement in North Africa, 2nd ed. (1997, originally published in French); and Susan E. Waltz, Human Rights and Reform: Changing the Face of North African Politics (1995). Emma Murphy Administration and social conditions Government The Tunisian constitution, promulgated in 1959 and subsequently amended, defines Tunisia as a republic whose religion is Islam and whose official language is Arabic. Legislative power is exercised by the unicameral Chamber of Deputies, which consists of 163 members elected for five-year terms by universal suffrage. Of this total, 144 are chosen from districts, the winning party from each district taking all the seats; the remainder is then divided proportionally among the opposition parties. In 1994 an amendment was passed stating that no single party would be allowed to hold more than four-fifths of the total number of seats. Executive power is in the hands of the president of the republic, who is head of state and head of the government. The president must be a Muslim and is elected for a five-year term by universal suffrage at the same time as the deputies; since 1988 the president has been limited to three consecutive terms. Reforms have enabled candidates to challenge the presidency in elections beginning in the late 1990s. The country is administered by the Council of Ministers, or cabinet, headed since 1969 by a prime minister. The cabinet ministers are responsible to the president rather than to the Chamber of Deputies, which, however, possesses the power to censure the cabinet. If such censuring occurs, the president may dismiss the Chamber of Deputies and hold new elections. If censured again by the new Chamber, the government must resign. The country is divided into 23 administrative areas called wilayat (provinces; singular wilayah; French: gouvernorats), which are headed by walis (governors). Each province is designated by the name of its chief town and is in turn subdivided into some 250 units called mu'tamadiyat (delegations; French: dlgations), whose number varies according to the province's size. Delegations are administered by a mu'tamad and are in turn divided into more than 2,000 districts called mantaqa turabiyyas. Tunisia is further divided into more than 250 municipalities and 154 rural councils. Justice Tunisia's legal system is based on a combination of French civil law and a liberal interpretation of Islamic law. The Council of State comprises two judicial bodies: an administrative body that deals with legal disputes between individuals and state or public institutions and a public audit office. The court system consists of magistrate courts at the local level, courts of the first instance, courts of appeal, and a high court in Tunis. Judicial power is exercised by judges whose independence is constitutionally guaranteed. Cultural life Tunisia prides itself on its strong and unique cultural character that combines the preservation of an authentic heritage with external influences and modern interpretation. It is an Arabic-speaking Muslim country that was deeply imbued with French culture during the 75 years of the protectorate, which ended in 1956. Thus, the majority of the country's daily newspapers are in French, and French-language television and radio programs are broadcast daily along with those in Arabic and Italian. The English language is also becoming more common in professional and commercial circles. The government actually encourages the use of English as an official second language, along with French. Mohamed Talbi John Innes Clarke Emma Murphy The arts Although Tunisians generally use French or English in the scientific disciplines, they remain genuinely attached to Arabic in the literary spherein poetry, the novel, and the short story. Historical philosophy and literary figures such as Ibn Khaldun, Ibn Rachik, Ibn Charaf, and al-Husri are still revered. Modern Tunisian literature grew from a cultural renaissance in the early 20th century. Social essayist Tahar Haddad, satirist Ali Douagi, poet Aboul Kacem Chabbi, and others have paved the way for a new realist trend in Tunisian literature by combining modern European styles with contemporary Tunisian themes. Increasingly, Tunisian writers, including women, are gaining international prominence. While there is no official censorship of the media, self-censorship has become a feature of daily life, as certain repressive political behaviour by the government has restricted the ability of journalists and political personalities to speak freely. Nonetheless, the high rate of literacy and sizeable middle class have helped to sustain an avid readership for the large number of periodicals (notably business and economics) that are published. Contemporary Tunisian painting can also lay claim to a certain tradition, with the cole de Tunis being foremost among artistic institutions. Tunisian artists such as Hamadi Ben Saad and Hassan Soufy enjoy a genuine local celebrity and have also exhibited abroad. Music- and theatre-based cultural festivalsnotably the Carthage International Festival, the Testour Maalouf Festival of traditional Andalusian malouf music, the Sousse International Cultural Festival, and the International Jazz Festival of Tabarqahhave become a feature of Tunisian life. Since Tunisians have generally been concerned about the influence of tourism on their social and cultural lives, the music conservatory, or Rachidia, devotes attention mainly to national traditions while emphasizing classical European heritage. Tunisians are especially proud of El Azifet, an exclusively female ensemble inspired by traditional malouf and mouachah music and traditional musicians such as Anwar Brahem. Tunisian cinema has been gradually making its way to an international audience. It has had some notable successes, among them The Silence of the Palaces and A Summer in La Goulette, and Tunisia has been the location for major motion picture productions, including The English Patient and Star Wars.