TURKMEN

also spelled Turkoman, or Turcoman, people who speak a language belonging to the southwestern branch of the Turkic languages. The majority live in Turkmenistan and in neighbouring parts of Central Asia and numbered more than 3 million by the end of the 20th century. About one-third of the total population lives in Iran, especially in the north, and another 400,000 live in northeastern and northwestern Afghanistan. These groups are called the Transcaspian Turkmen. Pockets of Turkmen are found in northern Iraq and Syria. Smaller groups live in central Turkey, where they have experienced minority discrimination, especially after 1958. The territory of the Turkmen is generally arid. They were by tradition a nomadic pastoral people, living in tent villages and raising sheep, goats, horses, camels, asses, and cattle. With the help of irrigation and fertilizers, those Turkmen who were under Soviet rule took up agriculture, and their stock breeding is no longer nomadic. Outside the Soviet Union some Turkmen continued their nomadic pastoral life. An important adjunct to the economy is rug weaving. For the Transcaspian Turkmen, government control began in Iran in 1925 at the order of Reza Shah Pahlavi of Iran. Flight into the Soviet Union was in vain, and they fled back. Many added cotton farming and fishing to their pastoralism. Later many of the Turkmen in the Soviet Union fled to Afghanistan. Turkmen social organization is based on descent in the paternal line. Although most of the Central Asian Turkic peoples were divided into a noble and a common stratum, the Turkmen had a division according to economic function, herding carrying more prestige than farming. At the head of each division was a khan (ruler). This mode of organization no longer exists among those Turkmen who lived under Soviet rule but continues elsewhere. The Turkmen are Muslims but, like most Turkic nomads, are not as deeply influenced by Islam as are the sedentary Turks.