UKRAINIAN LITERATURE

the body of writings in the Ukrainian language. The earliest writings of the Ukrainians, works produced in Kievan Rus from the 11th to the 13th century, were composed in Church Slavonic and are thus the common literary heritage of the Russians and Belarusians as well. After the Mongol invasion (13th century), Ukrainian literature was in decline until its revival in the 16th century. By the early 19th century the Ukrainian vernacular had become the primary vehicle of literary expression, and an era of prolific writing began. Nineteenth-century Ukrainian literature reflected the rapid development of Ukrainian national consciousness under Russian rule. Ivan Kotlyarevsky, classicist poet and playwright, inaugurated modern Ukrainian literature with his Eneida (1798), a burlesque travesty of Virgil's Aeneid that transformed its heroes into Ukrainian Cossacks. Modern Ukrainian prose was inaugurated by Hryhoriy Kvitka Osnovyanenko's novel Marusya (1834). About 1830 the city of Kharkiv became the centre of Ukrainian Romanticism, with such authors as Izmal Sreznevsky, Levko Borovykovsky, Amvrosii Metlynsky, and Mykola Kostomarov publishing ethnographic materials, native interpretations of Ukrainian history, and collections of folk legends and Cossack chronicles. In western Ukraine, Romanticism was represented by the Ruthenian Triad: Markiian Shashkevych, Yakov Holovatsky, and Ivan Vahylevych. The Romantic movement reached its peak in the work of the Kiev Romantics and found its highest expression in the Brotherhood of Saints Cyril and Methodius (1846). The early poetry of Taras Shevchenko, the outstanding Ukrainian poet of the 19th century, expressed the interests of the Romantics, but it soon moved to a more sombre portrayal of Ukrainian history, especially in the long poem Haidamaky (1841; The Haidamaks), and to works satirizing Russia's oppression of Ukrainee.g., Son (The Dream), Kavkaz (The Caucasus), and Poslaniie (The Epistle). His later poetry, written after his release (1857) from exile, treats broader themes. After Shevchenko, the most important Romantic was Panteleymon Kulish, poet, prose writer (Chorna rada; The Black Council), translator, and historian. Ukrainian realism, which began with Marko Vovchok (Narodni opovidannia, 1857; Tales of the People), was long confined to populist themes and the portrayal of village life. Realist poetry developed with the work of Stepan Rudansky and Leonid Hlibov. The novelist Ivan Nechuy-Levytsky's work ranged from the portrayal of village life in Kaydasheva simya (1879; The Kaydash Family) to that of the Ukrainian intelligentsia in Khmary (1908; The Clouds). Panas Myrny (pseudonym of Panas Rudchenko) was the major representative of Ukrainian realism. His depiction of social injustice and the birth of social protest in Khiba revut voly, yak yasla povni? (1880; Do the Oxen Low When the Manger Is Full?) had a new psychological dimension. Ivan Franko's naturalistic novels chronicling contemporary Galician society and his long narrative poems Moysey (Moses), Panski zharty (Nobleman's Jests), and Ivan Vyshensky mark the height of his literary achievement. The modernism of the late 19th and early 20th centuries is seen in the poetic dramas and dialogues of one of the finest Ukrainian poets, Lesya Ukrainka, and in the prose of such writers as Mikhaylo Kotsyubinsky and Vasyl Stefanyk. In the first three decades of the 20th century, Ukrainian literature experienced a renaissance characterized by a variety of literary movements. Realism, with a distinctly decadent strain, was the most notable characteristic of Volodymyr Vynnychenko's prose, while Pavlo Tychyna was the leading Symbolist poet. Neoclassicism produced the poet Mykola Zerov, and Futurism was initiated by Mykhailo Semenko. After the Russian Revolution, during a period of relative freedom granted by the Bolsheviks between 1917 and 1932, a host of other talented writers emerged, including the short-story writer and critic Mykola Khvylovy, who at first extolled the revolution but became increasingly critical of Soviet policies before his death. But in 1932 the Communist Party began enforcing Socialist Realism as the required literary style. The Soviet leader Joseph Stalin's great purges of 193338 decimated the ranks of Ukrainian writers, many of whom were imprisoned or executed or who fled into exile. The post-Stalinist period saw the emergence of a new generation that rejected Socialist Realism, but repressive measures taken in the 1970s silenced many of these authors or else turned them back to Socialist Realism. Ukraine's attainment of independence in 1991 opened up unprecedented opportunities for indigenous literary expression, but the Soviet suppression of so much Ukrainian talent in prior decades left the task largely to the younger generation. Additional reading History and criticism are presented in Vasa D. Mihailovich et al., Modern Slavic Literatures, vol. 2, Bulgarian, Czechoslovak, Polish, Ukrainian, and Yugoslav Literatures (1976); Dmytro Cyzevs'kyj, A History of Ukrainian Literature, from the 11th to the End of the 19th Century (1975); and Robert B. Pynsent and S.I. Kanikova (eds.), Reader's Encyclopedia of Eastern European Literature (also published as The Everyman Companion to East European Literature, 1993).