VEDANTA

one of the six orthodox systems (darshans) of Indian philosophy and the one that forms the basis of most modern schools of Hinduism. The term Vedanta means in Sanskrit the conclusion (anta) of the Vedas, the earliest sacred literature of India; it applies to the Upanishads, which were elaborations of the Vedas, and to the school that arose out of the study (mimamsa) of the Upanishads. Thus Vedanta is also referred to as Vedanta-Mimamsa (Reflection on Vedanta), Uttara-Mimamsa (Reflection on the Latter Part of the Vedas), and Brahma-Mimamsa (Reflection on Brahma). The three fundamental Vedanta texts are: the Upanishads (the most favoured being the longer and older ones such as the Brhadaranyaka, the Chandogya, the Taittiriya, and the Katha); the Brahma-sutras (also called Vedanta-sutras), which are very brief, even one-word interpretations of the doctrine of the Upanishads; and the famous poetic dialogue, the Bhagavadgita (Song of the Lord), which, because of its immense popularity, was drawn upon for support of the doctrines found in the Upanishads. No single interpretation of the texts emerged, and several schools of Vedanta developed, differentiated by their conceptions of the nature of the relationship and the degree of identity between the individual self (atman) and the absolute (brahma). These range from the nondualism (Advaita; q.v.) of the 8th-century philosopher Sankara to the theism (Visistadvaita; q.v.) of the 11th12th-century thinker Ramanuja and the dualism (Dvaita; q.v.) of the 13th-century thinker Madhva. The Vedanta schools do, however, hold in common a number of beliefs; transmigration of the self (samsara) and the desirability of release from the cycle of rebirths; the authority of the Veda on the means of release; that Brahman is both the material ( upadana) and the instrumental (nimitta) cause of the world; and that the self (atman) is the agent of its own acts (karma) and therefore the recipient of the fruits, or consequences, of action (phala). All the Vedanta schools unanimously reject both the heterodox (nastika) philosophies of Buddhism and Jainism and the conclusions of the other orthodox (astika) schools (Nyaya, Vaisesika, Samkhya, Yoga, and, to some extent, the Purva-Mimamsa). The influence of Vedanta on Indian thought has been profound, so that it may be said that, in one or another of its forms, Hindu philosophy has become Vedanta. Although the preponderance of texts by Advaita scholastics has in the West given rise to the erroneous impression that Vedanta means Advaita, the nondualistic Advaita is but one of many Vedanta schools.