YUGOSLAVIA

officially Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, Serbo-Croatian Savezna Republika Jugoslavija federated country situated on the west-central Balkan Peninsula. It is a union of two related states, the republics of Serbia (Srbija) and Montenegro (Crna Gora). Serbia is landlocked, but Montenegro forms a bridge southwestward from southern Serbia to the Adriatic Sea. Bounding Yugoslavia to the west is the Dalmatian section of Croatia, the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina, and the Slavonian region of Croatia. Yugoslavia adjoins Hungary to the north, Romania and Bulgaria to the east, and Macedonia and Albania to the south. The total area of Yugoslavia is 39,449 square miles (102,173 square km), of which Serbia occupies 21,609 square miles (55,967 square km), or 86 percent, and Montenegro 5,333 square miles (13,812 square km), or 14 percent. The federal capital is Belgrade (Beograd), which is also the capital of Serbia, and the capital of Montenegro is Podgorica. For the most part, the boundaries of the Yugoslav states were laid out only in the 20th century across segments of Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire that had acquired a complex mixture of ethnic groups. This was particularly the case with Serbia. Large numbers of Serbs are found outside Serbia, particularly among Croats and Bosniacs (formerly known as Muslims) in Croatia and in Bosnia and Herzegovina. In addition, numerous Hungarians, Croats, and Romanians live among Serbs in Serbia's northern Vojvodina region, and a populous but compact group of Albanians resides in the southern province of Kosovo. To accommodate minority groups settled in these two regions, the communist government after World War II made them autonomous provinces within the newly created Socialist Republic of Serbia (modeling these units on national territories that earlier had been created in the Soviet Union). The Vojvodina contains 8,304 square miles (21,507 square km) of Serbia's territory, and Kosovo's area embraces 4,203 square miles (10,885 square km). The current Yugoslav federation embraces less than half the territory and population of a larger South Slav state, established after World War I, that also comprised Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Macedonia. Of all these constituent regions, only Serbia and Montenegro had achieved some kind of independence before 1918. Serbia had gained self-rule within the Ottoman Empire during a slow process over the 19th century, culminating in full sovereignty in 1878, while Montenegro's tribes successfully had escaped effective Ottoman occupation for centuries. The other regions were drawn to the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes (as Yugoslavia was known before 1929) in order to safeguard their newfound independence from Austria-Hungary, but thereafter they had constantly to resist the powerful domination of central authority from Serbia. Indeed, before World War II, this first Yugoslavia was ruled by a Serbian royal dynasty, which had already annexed Macedonia even before the founding of the new kingdom. After the war a second Yugoslavia was organized along looser federal lines, but somewhat greater autonomy did little to allay the resentments of the lesser republics. Exacerbating this regional discontent was an attempt to force modernization onto Yugoslav society through a socialist economy and a single political party controlled from Belgrade. Communism came to be identified with Serbia, and, when the economic system failed in the 1980s, the non-Serb republics quit the political federation. After 1992 only Serbia and Montenegro remained in the third Yugoslavia. Additional reading General Most works on Yugoslavia discuss the kingdom or federation as they existed before 199192. The present third Yugoslavia is treated in this broad context in the following geographic works cited below. Following those sections are titles focusing specifically on the histories of Serbia and Montenegro. Geography Glenn E. Curtis (ed.), Yugoslavia: A Country Study, 3rd ed. (1992), is an informative all-around handbook on the larger federation, with sections on geography, economy, government, defense, and history. Detailed maps and extensive explanatory text (in Serbo-Croatian) are incorporated in Ivan Bertic (ed.), Veliki Geografski Atlas Jugoslavije (1987). Economic and political issues are considered by F.E. Ian Hamilton, Yugoslavia: Patterns of Economic Activity (1968); Fred Singleton, Twentieth-Century Yugoslavia (1976); and Bruce McFarlane, Yugoslavia: Politics, Economics, and Society (1988).A classic study of Serb village life is Joel M. Halpern and Barbara Kerewsky Halpern, A Serbian Village in Historical Perspective (1972, reissued 1986). An introduction to the traditions of Montenegro is contained in the autobiography by Milovan Djilas, Land Without Justice (1958). Thomas M. Poulsen History of Yugoslavia General surveys of Yugoslavia's history include Steven K. Pavlowitch, Yugoslavia (1971); Fred Singleton, A Short History of the Yugoslav Peoples (1985); and Jozo Tomasevich, Peasants, Politics, and Economic Change in Yugoslavia (1955, reprinted 1975), focusing on agrarian history.Ivo J. Lederer, Yugoslavia at the Paris Peace Conference: A Study in Frontiermaking (1963), treats the formation of the kingdom at the end of World War I. The formation of the new multinational state in the interwar period is dealt with in Ivo Banac, The National Question in Yugoslavia: Origins, History, Politics (1984); Jacob B. Hoptner, Yugoslavia in Crisis, 19341941 (1962); and Aleksa Djilas, The Contested Country: Yugoslav Unity and Communist Revolution, 19191953 (1991). Rebecca West, Black Lamb and Grey Falcon: A Journey Through Yugoslavia, 2 vol. (1941, reissued in 1 vol., 1982), is a classic pre-World War II historical and geographic study. The impact of World War II is covered by Dragia N. Ristic, Yugoslavia's Revolution of 1941 (1966); Frank C. Littlefield, Germany and Yugoslavia, 19331941: The German Conquest of Yugoslavia (1988); Ilija Jukic, The Fall of Yugoslavia (1974); Mark C. Wheeler, Britain and the War for Yugoslavia, 19401943 (1980); and Walter B. Roberts, Tito, Mihailovic, and the Allies, 19411945 (1973, reprinted 1987).General discussions of the post-World War II period are found in Branko Horvat, An Essay on Yugoslav Society (1969; originally published in Serbo-Croatian, 1969); Dennison I. Rusinow, The Yugoslav Experiment, 19481974 (1977); and Harold Lydall, Yugoslav Socialism: Theory and Practice (1984). The gathering socioeconomic crisis leading to the disintegration of the socialist federation is covered in Harold Lydall, Yugoslavia in Crisis (1989); Dijana Pletina, Regional Development in Communist Yugoslavia: Success, Failure, and Consequences (1992); Sabrina Petra Ramet, Nationalism and Federalism in Yugoslavia, 19621991, 2nd ed. (1992); and John B. Allcock, John J. Horton, and Marko Milivojevic (eds.), Yugoslavia in Transition: Choices and Constraints (1992). Aspects of the breakup of Yugoslavia are treated in Bogdan Szajkowski (ed.), Political Parties of Eastern Europe, Russia, and the Successor States (1994); Lenard J. Cohen, Broken Bonds: Yugoslavia's Disintegration and Balkan Politics in Transition, 2nd ed. (1995); Laslo Sekelj, Yugoslavia: The Process of Disintegration, trans. from Serbo-Croatian (1992); and Susan L. Woodward, Balkan Tragedy: Chaos and Dissolution After the Cold War (1955). History of Serbia The creation of the Serbian state and its development to World War I are dealt with in Leopold Ranke, A History of Servia and the Servian Revolution (1847, reprinted 1973; originally published in German, 1829); Harold Temperley, History of Serbia (1917, reprinted 1970); Georges Castellan, La Vie quotidienne en Serbie au seuil de l'indpendance, 18151839 (1967); R.G.D. Laffan, The Guardians of the Gate: Historical Lectures on the Serbe (1918, reissued as The Serbs, 1989); Michael Boro Petrovich, A History of Modern Serbia, 18041918, 2 vol. (1976); David MacKenzie, The Serbs and Russian Pan-Slavism, 18751878 (1967); Gale Stokes, Politics as Development: The Emergence of Political Parties in Nineteenth-Century Serbia (1990); and Wayne S. Vucinich, Serbia Between East and West: The Events of 19031908 (1954, reprinted 1968). Of particular interest with respect to the development of Serbian language and literary culture are Duncan Wilson, The Life and Times of Vuk Stefanovic Karadzic, 17871864: Literacy, Literature, and National Independence in Serbia (1970, reprinted 1986); and Anne Pennington and Peter Levi (trans.), Marko the Prince: Serbo-Croat Heroic Songs, with notes by Svetozar Koljevic (1984).Serbia's role in World War I is discussed by Crawfurd Price (W.H. Crawfurd Price), Serbia's Part in the War (1918); and in World War II by Jozo Tomasevich, The Chetniks (1975); and Lucien Karchmar, Draza Mihailovic and the Rise of the Cetnik Movement, 19411942, 2 vol. (1987). The development of relationships with Serbia's Albanian minority is treated extensively in Michel Roux, Les Albanais en Yougoslavie: minorit nationale, territoire et dveloppement (1992). History of Montenegro Among the states that have emerged from the former Yugoslav federation, Montenegro is the most poorly documented. Francis Seymour Stevenson, A History of Montenegro (1912, reprinted 1971), is a rare example of a monograph devoted exclusively to this topic. Alexander Devine, Montenegro in History, Politics, and War (1918), is an entertaining account that concentrates on the period between 1860 and World War I. Two key monographs that focus on specific aspects of Montenegro's international context may be cited: David MacKenzie, The Serbs and Russian Pan-Slavism, 18751878 (1967); and John D. Treadway, The Falcon & the Eagle: Montenegro and Austria-Hungary, 19081914 (1983). M.E. Durham, Some Tribal Origins, Laws, and Customs of the Balkans (1928, reprinted 1979), includes invaluable material contributing to a historical understanding of the ethnography of Montenegro; and this endeavour is furthered by Christopher Boehm, Montenegrin Social Organization and Values (1983).A number of important contributions to the literature on Montenegro have been made by a native Montenegrin, Milovan Djilas: Njego: Poet, Prince, Bishop (1966), a significant study of this great literary and political figure, and Djilas' autobiography, Land Without Justice (1958). John B. Allcock Administration and social conditions Federal government For more than four decades after the Partisan victory of 1945, Yugoslavia functioned as a communist federation. Its political evolution during the long presidency of Josip Broz Tito saw new constitutions adopted in 1946, 1953, 1963, and 1974. With Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Macedonia having declared independence in 199192, these documents became obsolete, and Serbia and Montenegro adopted an agreement on February 1, 1992, entitled Essentials of the Organization and Functioning of Yugoslavia as a Common State. Although most governmental powers are reserved to the two republics, the federal government is responsible for specific activities in the fields of human rights (including the rights of minority ethnic groups as well as those of individuals), financial management (including monetary policy and economic dealings abroad), foreign policy, and defense. Questions of social welfare and environmental protection also fall under its purview. The head of state is the president, who is elected by the parliament from one of the republics according to predetermined turns and serves a four-year term. The president, in turn, proposes a prime minister to manage the government. The prime minister is approved and dismissed by parliament. The president and prime minister cannot be from the same republic. The federal parliament consists of two chambers. The 40-member Chamber of Republics consists of equal numbers of deputies from each republic selected by republican assemblies. This chamber is responsible for deciding matters pertaining to the equality of republics and may look into any issue deemed important from the point of view of equality. The Chamber of Citizens is elected directly and consists of 138 total members, of which Serbia has 108 and Montenegro has 30. The Chamber of Citizens decides matters of common interest to the joint state. The federal government maintains a constitutional court and a federal court, which is the highest court in the federation, that are responsible for protecting the order and legitimacy of the joint state. The federal court has jurisdiction over acts of the federal government and also serves as a tribunal of appeal. Until the secession of the four other republics, Yugoslavia permitted only one political partythe League of Communists of Yugoslavia (LCY). Like communist parties elsewhere in eastern Europe, the LCY originally maintained a monopoly on decision making. However, as branches in each republic and autonomous province grew more assertive over the years, the party lost its monolithic character. During the period of secessions, branches of the LCY in Serbia and Montenegro adopted the name Socialist. Other political parties now are permitted, but the socialist parties, notably the Joint List, an alliance that comprises the Socialist Party of Serbia, the Yugoslav United Left, and New Democracy, remain the dominant force. The armed forces play an unusual role in the federal government of Yugoslavia, continuing a practice that has long been a part of that state's distinctive institutions. Legislation adopted formally in 1982, before the secession of the other republics, established a National Defense Council, which, in time of war or any other peril, can assume sweeping police powerseven making its own determination that such a situation exists. As a result, a small number of military officers hold a considerable amount of power. The Council invoked its powers in the secession period, utilizing the Yugoslav armed forces in vain attempts to prevent Slovenian and Croatian independence. Yugoslavia continues to maintain a policy of universal defense of the state. Its armed forces contain both professional military personnel and conscripts. The latter include all able-bodied males, who are required to serve 12 months; conscientious objection is prohibited. After active duty, conscripts become part of a reserve force. Almost all citizens, including women, are organized into a civil defense organization. Following the NATO air bombardments in 1999, a combined peacekeeping force of about 30,000 Russian and NATO troops was deployed in Kosovo. The republican governments Although Serbia, with virtually all of the population, is the dominant partner in Yugoslavia, it, like Montenegro, maintains its own separate republican government. The organization of the republican government parallels that of the federal government, and it has specific rights in international affairs and defense. The Serbian republican government lost direct control over the autonomous provinces of Kosovo and the Vojvodina in 1968, when they were placed under the authority of the federal government. But over the following decades Albanians began to press for full republic status within Yugoslavia, and this provoked an emotional counterreaction among Serbs, particularly regarding Kosovo. The Serbian population was particularly distressed at what was perceived to be pressures forcing the shrinking Serb minority to emigrate from Kosovo, and Serbia reasserted its direct control over Kosovo and the Vojvodina in 1989. Local governments in Serbia's communes (optini) serve as basic units for services and tax collection. Serbia proper has 100 communes (not counting the municipal wards of Belgrade), the Vojvodina 44, and Kosovo 22. These are roughly about 150 square miles (400 square km) in area, with an average population of 45,000. Urban communes have larger populations, many containing more than 100,000 inhabitants. BOALs report to local commune assemblies and also elect representatives to them. Montenegro's government parallels that of Serbia. It has 20 communes that range in size from about 18 to more than 770 square miles (50 to 2,000 square km) and in population from 5,000 to more than 130,000. Cultural life Serbia Serbian society has a strong peasant patriarchal tradition that evolved under Ottoman domination and is still reflected in family and government structures. A distinctive feature is the zadruga, a corporate family group of 100 or more individuals that originally worked the land under the direction of family elders. The zadruga functioned as a rural tradition well into the communist era after World War II. The advent of modern public services took a toll, however. Even as elders lived to increasingly older ages, younger adults educated in an expanding school system chafed at patriarchal authority. By the 1970s the zadruga system evolved into a less onerous system of cooperative extended family groups. Nevertheless, family loyalties continue to play a major role in Serbia, where job nepotism is a recurring phenomenon. Serbian cuisine reflects its Byzantine and Ottoman heritage. The national dish is cevapcici, consisting of small, rolled patties of mixed ground meats that are heavily seasoned and grilled. Dress has become modern European throughout Serbia, although it was not unusual to see rural women in traditional work costumes well into the 1970s. Universal public education and a general exposure to television have provided the impetus to modernize clothing and many other aspects of daily lifealthough the cultural heritage remains. Many women, particularly in rural areas, create elaborate costumes that are traditional for their regions, donning them during fetes and family celebrations. Serbia's peasant traditions continue to exert a substantial influence on the arts. Folk music and literature remain popular, particularly in rural areas. A significant part of contemporary painting is based on traditions developed in Serbian church frescoes, although much of the country's popular culture is heavily influenced by trends coming from western Europe and North America. Western rock music has produced a substantial following. Such groups as Fish Soup and Rambo Amadeus have tried to make political statements through rock music. Turbofolk combines traditional folk rhythms with rock by using electrical instruments. This form of modern Slavic music is often performed in cafs in the larger cities. Serbia has a long theatre tradition, with numerous professional theatres operating in the republic. The Serbian National Theatre building in Belgrade dates from 1868. Serbia also has a noteworthy cinematic tradition. Before the outbreak of World War II, Belgrade motion picture companies had produced a dozen feature films. The most spectacular was The Battle of Kosovo, produced in 1939 by Mihail Popovic. Belgrade hosts an annual film festival. Serbia's first television transmissions began in 1958 in Belgrade. Serbian television productions are noted for an original approach to the medium. There are television studios in Belgrade, Novi Sad, and Pritina. Also, several dozen radio stations are in operation. Recreational and sports activities are well developed throughout the republic, with hundreds of thousands of individuals registered as active participants in sports organizations. Hunting and fishing are particularly popular, as are basketball, gymnastics, martial arts, and volleyball; football (soccer) is the most popular competitive sport. Serbia has established four national parks: Kopaonik and Tara in the southwestern mountains, erdap adjacent to the Iron Gate gorge of the Danube, and Fruka Gora in the southwestern Vojvodina. Hundreds of newspapers are published in Serbia. Politika, founded in 1904, is considered to be the most authoritative of the republic's dailies. Among weekly magazines, the most popular is Nedeljne Informativne Novine, better known as NIN. Semimonthly and monthly journals and other serials are published in the republic. Book publishing is active, with thousands of titles appearing annually. Montenegro Montenegro's traditional culture revolves around clans, groups of patrilineally related families that at one time maintained tribal identities on their own traditional territories. Increasing integration into the Yugoslav state, including general provision of public education, brought an end to clan autonomy, but clans themselves remain an important element in Montenegrin social life. A continuing object of complaint has been rampant clan nepotism in the staffing of governmental bureaucracies. Faced with incessant threats from Ottoman armies and rival groups, clans traditionally emphasized personal courage in combat as a major virtue. This was reflected in the disproportionate role, before the republican secessions of the early 1990s, of Montenegrins in Yugoslavia's armed forces. Montenegrins constituted a high proportion of noncommissioned and commissioned officers in the Yugoslav People's Army, including one-fifth of its generals. Another factor explaining this influence is the limited economic opportunities present in the republic itself. Despite a relatively small population, Montenegro has developed a wide range of cultural institutions as part of the Yugoslav state. These include theatres, art galleries, museums, and libraries. The government emphasizes physical education and sports activities. As in Serbia, fishing and hunting are popular. The state also has set aside substantial areas for recreation, including three national parks: Durmitor, Biogradska Gora, and Lovcen. Scores of newspapers, including Pobjeda (Victory), are published in the republic. Local presses publish a few hundred books each year. There are several radio stations and a television studio and transmitter in the republic. Thomas M. Poulsen The Editors of the Encyclopdia Britannica