MUSICAL PERFORMANCE

step in the musical process during which musical ideas are realized and transmitted to a listener. In Western music, performance is most commonly viewed as an interpretive art, though it is not always merely that. A performer to some degree determines aspects of any music he plays. Issues of tempo, phrasing, dynamics, and, in some types of music, pitches and instrumentation are subject to a performer's discretion. Because the pleasure people derive from sounds has always been closely related to the pleasure they derive from making the sounds themselves, it is difficult to conceive of the origin of music as separate from an act of musical performance. Models for the establishment of rhythm may be found in heartbeat and breathing, and in the inflections of speech and cries of grief, pleasure, and desire are found the source of what became song. The earliest visual manifestations of musical performance are found in rock paintings and excavated objects. While the interrelationship of music and ritual is clear, there is evidence that music was performed for dancing, in various work activities, and primitive games as well. Flutelike instruments of many sizes, made from bones and wood, and elaborate percussion instruments figure prominently in all primitive cultures, in which these instruments often were assigned symbolic significance associated with forces of the supernatural. Singing is most probably the oldest musical activity. Even in the most primitive cultures the singer has had a special, defined position. In primitive singing there are three classes of sound: the first is called logogenic, in which words form the basis for the wavering musical incantation; the second, called pathogenic, consists of harsh, forceful, percussive, nonverbal sounds emitted to express strong feeling; in the third category, called melogenic, the sounds of the two previous categories combine to form a contour of pitches that pursue a course seemingly dictated by the weight of tensions inherent in the sequence of pitches and hence melodic in effect. Primitive societies evolved several means to relieve the monotony of one person's singing. A principle device is called antiphony, which involved two groups that sang in alternation or a leader who sang and was answered by a group of singers. In the latter may be seen the origin of responsorial singing, which continues today and which may be the point of origin for several types of musical phrase structures. Polyphony was also anticipated in primitive musical performance. It appeared through haphazard rather than intentional manifestations, such as the singing of the same melody with the parts starting on different pitches or at different times. This article deals primarily with Western musical performance and its history but also deals briefly with non-Western traditions. Additional reading The best direct and concise account of the issues of performance is Thurston Dart, The Interpretation of Music (1954). Other general views of the subject are Frederick Dorian, The History of Music in Performance: The Art of Musical Interpretation from the Renaissance to Our Day (1942, reprinted 1981); and Robert Donington, The Interpretation of Early Music, 2nd ed. (1965), which, like Dart, includes a bibliography of sources. What bibliographic aids to individual performers exist are given in Dictionaries and Encyclopedias of Musical Instruments, Makers, and Performers, in Vincent H. Duckles, Music References and Research Materials: An Annotated Bibliography, 2nd ed., pp. 4050 (1967). Certainly the most extensive bibliography ever published on the subject is Kary Vinquist and Neal Zaslav (eds.), Performance Practice: A Bibliography (1971). Some book-length studies of particular aspects of musical performance are listed below: P. Aldrich, Rhythm in Seventeenth-Century Italian Monady (1966); F.T. Arnold, The Art of Accompaniment from a Thorough-Bass As Practised in the XVIIth and XVIIIth Centuries (1931); J.H. Barbour, Tuning and Temperament (1951); D.D. Boyden, The History of Violin Playing, from Its Origins to 1761 and Its Relationship to the Violin and Violin Music (1965); Walter Emery, Bach's Ornaments (1953); R.E.M. Harding, Origins of Musical Time and Expression (1938); Wilfrid H. Mellers, Theory and Practice, in Franois Couperin and the French Classical Tradition (1950); Fritz Rothschild, The Lost Tradition in Music: Rhythm and Tempo in J.S. Bach's Time (1953), and Musical Performance in the Times of Mozart and Beethoven: The Lost Tradition in Music, Part II (1961); Denis W. Stevens (ed.), The Art of Ornamentation in the Renaissance and Baroque (1967), a stereophonic record; Henry Pleasants, The Great Singers: From the Dawn of Opera to Our Own Time (1966); and William P. Malm, Music Cultures of the Pacific, the Near East, and Asia (1967).