CENSOR

plural Censors, or Censores, in ancient Rome, a magistrate whose original functions of registering citizens and their property were greatly expanded to include supervision of senatorial rolls and moral conduct. Censors also assessed property for taxation and contracts, penalized moral offenders by removing their public rights, such as voting and tribe membership, and presided at the lustrum ceremonies of purification at the close of each census. The censorship was instituted in 443 BC and discontinued in 22 BC, when the emperors assumed censorial powers. The censors, who always numbered two, were elected normally at five-year intervals in the Comitia Centuriata (one of the assemblies in which the Roman people voted). Plebeians became eligible in 351 BC for the originally patrician office. Judgments were passed only with the agreement of both incumbents, and the death or abdication of one resulted in the retirement of the other. in traditional East Asia, governmental official charged primarily with the responsibility for scrutinizing and criticizing the conduct of officials and rulers. The office originated in China, where, under the Ch'in (221206 BC) and Han (206 BCAD 220) dynasties, the censor's function was to criticize the emperor's acts; but, as the imperial office gained prestige, the censorate became mainly an instrument for imperial control of the bureaucracy, investigating acts of official corruption and misgovernment for the emperor. By the T'ang dynasty (618907), the censorate, or Y-shih-t'ai, as it was then known, had thus become a major organ of the government. It expanded even further during the Sung dynasty (9601279) and reached the apogee of its power during the Ming (13681644) and Ch'ing (16441911) dynasties, when the imperial institution became extremely autocratic. Retitled the Tu-ch'a-yan in 1380, it was then a huge governmental bureau controlled by two chief censors and composed of four subdivisions. The censors checked important documents, supervised construction projects, reviewed judicial proceedings, kept watch over state property, and maintained a general lookout for cases of subversion and corruption. Usually recruited from the civil bureaucracy, the censors were generally younger men of relatively low rank who were tenured for a maximum of nine years, after which they resumed their former posts. Their chief power derived from their direct access to the emperor. Some censors, however, were punished for their overzealous criticisms of favoured imperial policies, and this induced others to mute their criticisms and ignore many cases of misgovernment. The major effect of the office was to spread fear throughout the bureaucracy, preventing officials from instituting any kind of radically new or innovative policies. Although the functions of the censorate were maintained in the Chinese Nationalist and, to a lesser extent, the Chinese Communist governments, the institution effectively ended in China with the overthrow of the Ch'ing dynasty in 1911. A censorate apparatus was adopted by all the East and Central Asian states that copied the Chinese bureaucratic system. In Korea, because of the relatively weak position of the Korean king and the strength of the aristocracy, the censorate became a highly important organ that not only scrutinized corruption but directly criticized the policies of the monarch. In Korea the original boards of censors (Sahonbu and Saganwon) were supplemented by the Hongmun'gwan (Office of Special Counselors) and Kyongyon (Office of Royal Lectures), which eventually became a forum for evaluating state policy and the conduct of the king and officials. The Tokugawa government (16031867) of Japan instituted a censorial system (metsuke) in the 17th century for the surveillance of affairs in every one of the feudal fiefs (han) into which the country was divided. Many daimyos (lords of fiefs) were transferred to smaller han or lost their domains altogether as a result of the unfavourable judgments of the censorate.