COMPARATIVE PSYCHOLOGY

the study of similarities and differences in behavioral organization among living beings, from bacteria to plants to humans. The discipline pays particular attention to the psychological nature of human beings in comparison with other animals. In the study of animals, comparative psychology concentrates on discerning qualitative as well as quantitative similarities and differences in animal (including human) behaviour. It has important applications in fields such as medicine, ecology, and animal training. With the rise of an experimental comparative psychology in the latter half of the 19th century and its rapid growth during the 20th, the study of lower animals has cast increasing light on human psychology in such areas as the development of individual behaviour, motivation, the nature and methods of learning, effects of drugs, and localization of brain function. Other animals are easier to obtain in numbers and can be better controlled under experimental conditions than can human subjects, and much can be learned about humans from lower animals. Comparative psychologists have been careful, however, to avoid anthropomorphizing the behaviour of animals; that is, to avoid ascribing to animals human attributes and motivations when their behaviours can be explained by simpler theories. This principle is known as Lloyd Morgan's canon, named after a British pioneer in comparative psychology. The tendency to endow lower animals with human capacities always has been strong. In recorded history, two different views have developed concerning human beings' relation to the lower animals. One, termed for convenience the man-brute view, stresses differences often to the point of denying similarities altogether and derives from the traditional religious accounts of the separate creations of humans and animals; the other, the evolutionary view, stresses both similarities and differences. Aristotle formalized the man-brute view, attributing a rational faculty to humans alone, lesser faculties to the animals. The modern scientific view, on the other hand, considers humans to be highly evolved animals; evidence indicates that continuity in the evolution of organisms provides a basis for essential psychological similarities and differences between lower and higher animals, including humans.