CYPRUS, FLAG OF

national flag consisting of a white field (background) showing a yellow silhouette of Cyprus above two green olive branches. Its width-to-length ratio is 3 to 5. For centuries Cyprus was part of the Ottoman Empire and flew Turkish flags. By agreement with the Turkish sovereign, however, the British assumed administrative control of the island in 1878 and subsequently flew the Union Jack there. During World War I the island was annexed by the British, and other colonial flags were then introduced. For example, to the British Red Ensign was added a badge with two lions; this was supposedly the symbol of King Richard I of England, who in 1191 became ruler of Cyprus as part of his involvement in the Crusades. The local peoples of the island, however, had no attachment to British symbols; the Cypriot Greeks and Turks looked respectively to the Greek and Turkish national flags as their own. On August 16, 1960, the Republic of Cyprus was proclaimed, with a national flag of neutral design. On a plain white field it bore the island in yellow silhouette with a green olive wreath (symbolizing peace) beneath. This flag was not (and is not) widely used, however, because the Greek and Turkish communities continued to fly the national flags of their original homelands. In 1974 a Turkish invasion of the island, in the face of possible annexation by Greece, led to the establishment of a puppet state on the northern third of the island. Subsequently proclaimed independent, the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus adopted a flag of its own based on the Turkish model. Whitney Smith Government and social conditions Government The constitution of the Republic of Cyprus, adopted in 1960, provided that executive power be exercised by a Greek-Cypriot president and a Turkish-Cypriot vice president, elected to five-year terms by universal suffrage, and that there be a Council of Ministers (cabinet) comprising seven Greek-Cypriot and three Turkish-Cypriot members. It also called for an elected House of Representatives with 50 seats, divided between Greek and Turkish Cypriots in the proportion of 35 to 15 and elected for terms of five years. The constitution, derived from the negotiations in Zrich, Switzerland, in 1959 between representatives of the governments of Greece and Turkey, was not widely accepted by the citizens of the new republic. The Greek Cypriots, whose struggle against the British had been for enosis (union with Greece) and not for independence, regretted the failure to achieve this national aspiration. As a result, it was not long after the establishment of the republic before the Greek-Cypriot majority began to regard many of the provisions, particularly those relating to finance and to local government, as unworkable. Proposals for amendments were rejected by the Turkish government; and, after the outbreak of fighting between the two Cypriot communities in late 1963, the constitution was suspended. In the Republic of Cyprus after the Turkish occupation of 1974, the constitution's provisions remained in force where practicable; the main formal change has been the increase in the number of seats in the House of Representatives to 80, although the 24 seats allocated to Turks have remained vacant. On the Turkish side of the demarcation line there have been, since 1974, a popularly elected president, prime minister, and legislative assembly, all serving five-year terms of office. A new constitution was approved for the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus by its electorate in 1985. Local government in the Republic of Cyprus is at the district, municipal, rural municipality, and village levels. District officers are appointed by the government; local councils are elected, as are the mayors of municipalities. Justice The legal code of Cyprus is based on Roman law. In the Greek-Cypriot zone judges are appointed by the government, but the judiciary is entirely independent of the executive power. The Supreme Court is the highest court and also serves as the final appeals court in the republic. A Permanent Assize Court has criminal jurisdiction over the whole island, and district courts handle criminal, civil, and admiralty matters. The Turkish-Cypriot zone has a similar system of justice. History Earliest periods Tools and other artifacts provide the earliest evidence of human presence on Cyprus; the oldest have been dated to about 10,000 years ago. The first known settlement, as early as 9,000 years ago, was at Khirokitia (near the southern coast), a town of about 2,000 inhabitants who lived in well-built, two-story round stone houses. The presence of small quantities of obsidian, a type of volcanic rock not native to the island, is the only sign of the island's contact with other cultures. Khirokitia and several smaller associated settlements disappeared after a few centuries, leaving the island uninhabited for nearly 2,000 years. The beginning of the next period of habitation dates to 45004000 BC; small villages from that time have been excavated north of Curium at Sotira near the southern coast and also in the Kyrenia Mountain range, and ornaments of picrolite (a variety of soapstone) and copper have also been found in those areas. The Bronze Age The Chalcolithic Age, which dates from 3000 to 2500 BC, was followed by the Bronze Age. The discovery of several styles of well-made decorative pottery from the Middle Bronze Age (19001600 BC) demonstrates advanced craftsmanship, and imports from Crete, Anatolia, Syria, and Egypt prove that external trade had begun by this time. It is possible that the name Alashiya or Alasia, both of which occur in Hittite and Egyptian records in connection with the supply of copper, refers to Cyprus. These trade links probably accounted for the foundation of new settlements in the eastern part of the island that became international trading centres. The Late Bronze Age (16001050 BC) was one of the most formative periods of the life of ancient Cyprus. The island's international contacts extended from the Aegean Sea to the Levant and the Nile River delta. (Thutmose III of Egypt claimed Cyprus as one of his conquests about 1500 BC.) Writing, in the form of a linear script known as Cypro-Minoan, was borrowed from Crete. Cypriot craftsmen were distinguished for fine jewelry, ivory carving, and bronze figures. From about 1400 BC Mycenaean pottery was imported from mainland Greece, and it is possible that Mycenaean artists accompanied the merchants. After 1200 BC, with the collapse of Mycenaean civilization, there is evidence of Greek immigration from the Peloponnese. West of Famagusta was Engomi, the principal city and port; its massive city walls and houses of hewn stone demonstrate a high degree of prosperity. The economy The economy after independence Between 1960 and 1973 the Republic of Cyprus, operating a free enterprise economy based on agriculture and trade, achieved a standard of living higher than most of its neighbours, with the exception of Israel. This progress was substantially assisted by various agencies of the United Nations, operating through the UN Development Program. Generous financial assistance was given by the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund in the form of loans for specific development projects, including electricity supply, port development, and sewerage systems. Individual foreign countries also made some aid available to Cyprus. These countries and organizations provided experts to advise economic planning and initiate productive projects; and scholarships and grants provided for the training of Cypriot specialists in these areas. During this time, the gross domestic product (GDP) and per capita income grew substantially, agricultural production doubled, industrial production and exports of goods and services more than tripled, and tourism became a significant earner of foreign exchange. Effects of partition The Turkish occupation of nearly two-fifths of the country in 1974, involving the displacement of about one-third of the total population, dealt a serious blow to the island's economic development. Greek-Cypriot losses of land and personal property in the occupied areas were substantial, and they also lost Famagusta, the only deepwater port, and the Nicosia International Airport. The GDP of the Greek-Cypriot sector dropped by about one-third between 1973 and 1975. Through vigorous efforts, real growth was resumed in the area that remained under the control of the government of the Republic of Cyprus, and between 1975 and 1983 the annual rate of growth was estimated to average about 10 percent. Since 1983 the economy of the Greek-Cypriot sector has flourished, and unemployment and inflation have remained relatively low. Tourism has provided the main leverage of economic growth, and many areas have undergone technological upgrading. In the 1990s the Greek-Cypriot sector increasingly transformed itself into a centre of international transit trade, merchant shipping, banking, and related services. The republic's Greek-run government has established special tariff arrangements with the European Union, and since 1990 it has been seeking admittance to the organization, whose member countries account for about half of the island's imports. The Turkish-occupied area has not experienced the same prosperity, however, and the Turkish government has had to subsidize its economy. The Turkish area remains heavily dependent on agriculture. Trade between the two areas ceased in 1974, and the two economies have remained entirely independent. However, the southern zone continues to supply the northern zone with electricity, and the northern zone still processes the sewage of Greek Nicosia. The land Relief and drainage The rugged island of Cyprus resembles a saucepan, with the handle extending northeastward from the main part. The general pattern of its roughly 400-mile (640-km) coastline is indented and rocky, with long, sandy beaches. The 100-mile- (160-km-) long Kyrenia Mountainsthe western portion of which is also known as the Pentadaktylos for its five-fingered peakruns parallel to and just inland from the northern coast. It is the southernmost range of the great Alpine-Himalayan chain in the eastern Mediterranean; like much of that extensive mountain belt, it is formed largely of deformed masses of Mesozoic limestone. The Troodos Mountains in the south and southwest are of great interest to geologists, who have concluded that the range, made up of igneous rock, was formed from molten rock beneath the deep ocean (Tethys) that once separated the continents of Eurasia and Afro-Arabia. The range stretches eastward about 50 miles (80 km) from near the island's west coast to the 2,260-foot (689-metre) Stavrovouni peak, about 12 miles (19 km) from the southeast coast. The range's summit, Mount Olympus (also called Mount Troodos), reaches an elevation of 6,401 feet (1,951 metres) and is the island's highest point. Between the two ranges lies the Mesaoria Plain (its name means Between the Mountains), which is flat and low-lying and extends from Morphou Bay in the west to Famagusta Bay in the east. Roughly in the centre of the plain is Nicosia. The plain is the principal cereal-growing area in the island. The major rivers in Cyprus originate in the Troodos Mountains. The Pedieos, which is the largest, flows eastward toward Famagusta Bay; the Serakhis flows northwestward and the Karyotis northward to Morphou Bay; and the Kouris flows southward to Episkopi Bay. The rivers are fed entirely from the runoff of winter precipitation; in summer they become dry courses. Climate Cyprus has an intense Mediterranean climate, with a typically strongly marked seasonal rhythm. Hot, dry summers (June to September) and rainy winters (November to March) are separated by short autumn and spring seasons (October and April to May, respectively) of rapid change. Autumn and winter precipitation, on which agriculture and water supply depend, is variable. Average annual precipitation is about 20 inches (500 mm). The lowest average precipitation of 14 inches (350 mm) occurs at Nicosia, and the highest, 41 inches (1,050 mm), is on Mount Olympus. Summer temperatures in Nicosia range between an average daily maximum of 98 F (37 C) and an average daily minimum of 70 F (21 C); in winter the range is between 59 F (15 C) and 41 F (5 C). From December to March the Troodos range experiences several weeks of below-freezing night temperatures, and snowfall is considerable. The people Ethnic and linguistic composition The people of Cyprus represent two main ethnic groups, Greek and Turkish. The Greek Cypriots, who constitute about four-fifths of the population, descended from a mixture of aboriginal inhabitants and immigrants from the Peloponnese who colonized Cyprus starting about 1200 BC and assimilated subsequent settlers up to the 16th century. About one-sixth of the population are Turkish Cypriots, descendants of the soldiers of the Ottoman army that conquered the island in 1571 and of immigrants from Anatolia brought in by the sultan's government. Since 1974 additional immigrants from Anatolia have been brought in to work vacant land and increase the total labour force. The language of the majority is Greek and of the minority, Turkish. English is widely spoken and understood as a second language. Illiteracy is extremely low, the result of an excellent educational system. Religions The Greek Cypriots are primarily Eastern Orthodox Christians. Their church, the Church of Cyprus, is autocephalous (not under the authority of any patriarch); this privilege was granted to Archbishop Anthemius in AD 488 by the Byzantine emperor Zeno. Under the Ottoman Empire, the archbishop of the Church of Cyprus was made responsible for the secular as well as the religious behaviour of the Orthodox community and given the title ethnarch. The Turkish Cypriots are Sunnite Muslims. There are also Maronites, Armenians, Roman Catholics, and Anglicans on the island.