ETHIOPIAN LITERATURE

writings either in classical Ge'ez (Ethiopic) or in Amharic, the principal modern language of Ethiopia. The earliest extant literary works in Ge'ez are translations of Christian religious writings from Greek, which may have influenced their style and syntax. From the 7th century to the 13th, a period marked by political disturbances, there was no new literary activity; but, with the proclamation of the new Solomonid dynasty in Ethiopia in 1270, there began the most productive era of Ge'ez literature, again characterized by translation, not from Greek but from Arabic, though the originals were frequently Coptic, Syriac, or Greek. The subject matter was mostly theological or strongly flavoured by religious considerations. The most interesting work of this period was the 14th-century Kebra Negast (Glory of the Kings), a combination of mythical history, allegory, and apocalypse, the central theme of which is the visit of the Queen of Sheba (Makeda) to Solomon and the birth of a son, Menilek, who became the legendary founder of the Ethiopian dynasty. Abba Salama, an Egyptian Copt who became metropolitan of Ethiopia in 1350, was not only responsible for a revision of the text of the Bible but translated or induced others to translate several books popular among the Ethiopian faithful. The rhapsodical Weddase Mariam (Praise of Mary) is appended to the Psalter (the Psalms) and thus has almost canonical status. In a slightly later period, about the beginning of the 15th century, various separate lives of saints and martyrs, including St. George (the patron saint of Ethiopia), were written. At this time was undertaken a translation of the Arabic Synaxarium, containing lives of saintsone or more for every day in the year. The early 15th century saw the translation of several apocalyptic books, which inspired two original compositions. Fekkare Iyasus (Elucidation of Jesus) was written during the reign of Tewodros I (141114); Mystery of Heaven and Earth was written somewhat later and is noteworthy for a vigorous account of the struggle between the archangel Michael and Satan. This book must not be confused with another original work of the same period, the Book of Mystery by Giorgis of Sagla, a refutation of heresies. The large hymnals and antiphonaries called Deggua, Mawase'et, and Me'raf also probably dated from this time, though some of the anthems may be older. Another type of religious poetry first composed during the 15th century was the malk'e (likeness), consisting generally of about 50 five-line rhyming stanzas, each addressed to a different physical or moral attribute of the saint apostrophized. As a last example of the religious literature of the golden age may be mentioned the Miracles of Mary, translated from Arabic in 144142; it was enormously popular and went through several recensions, or critical revisions. During the Muslim incursion of 152743, Ethiopian literary activity ceased and many manuscripts were destroyed; Islamization was widespread, and, even after the repulsion of the invaders, the country never fully recovered. A Muslim merchant who had been converted to Christianity and, as Enbaqom (Habakkuk), became prior of the monastery of Debre Libanos, wrote Anqas'a amin (Gate of Faith) to justify his conversion and to persuade apostates to recant. Other similar works were produced, and several were written to defend the Monophysite branch of the Christian faith. Meanwhile the arrival of Roman Catholic missionaries constituted a further danger to the Ethiopian Orthodox church. The ancient language of Ge'ez had by now lost its vigour and became a liturgical language in which few people were thoroughly conversant. During the 16th century, Amharic, the principal spoken language, was beginning to be used for literary purposes, and Amharic expressions even appeared in royal chronicles. About 1600, nevertheless, a few substantial works in Ge'ez appeared, including Hawi, an enormous theological encyclopaedia translated by Salik of Debre Libanos; a History by Johannes Madabbar, bishop of Nikiu, containing an account of the Arab conquest of Egypt, valuable since the Arab original has been lost; and Fetha Negast (Justice of the Kings), a compilation of canon and civil law. Ge'ez poetry (qene) flourished, at Gonder particularly, in the 18th century and has since continued to be practiced at many monasteries. Some poems of Alaqa Taye were printed in Asmara (now in Eritrea) in 1921, and an important anthology compiled by Hiruy Walde Selassie was published at Addis Ababa in 1926. Ethiopia's Jewish population, known as Falasha, who lived mostly in regions north of Lake Tana, still used Ge'ez as their sacred language. Besides the Old Testament (including the Book of Jubilees), the Falasha have a few books peculiar to themselves, notably Te'ezaza Sanbat (Ordinance of the Sabbath), of uncertain date and perhaps mostly a translation from Arabic of the 14th century. A Falasha Anthology was published by Wolf Leslau in 1951. By 1992 nearly the entire Falasha population had migrated to Israel. The earliest known Amharic compositions are songs celebrating the victory of Amda Tseyon (131444). From the 16th century onward, theological works were produced. A translation of the Bible was made in Cairo early in the 19th century (though probably not by a true Ethiopian, to judge by the quality of the Amharic), and from this version missionary societies composed their editions. Revisions were made by foreigners with an inadequate knowledge of Amharic. A more scholarly version of the New Testament was printed in Addis Ababa in 1955, followed by the Old Testament in 1961. The first official chronicles wholly in Amharic were those of Tewodros II (185568). A translation of John Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress made in 1892 pointed the way to a new popular formthe allegorical novel, often partly in verse, with a religious bias, of which the first was Libb wallad tarik (1908; Imaginative Story) by Afeworq Gabre-Eyesus. During the regency of Ras Tafari (191620; afterward Emperor Haile Selassie I), Hiruy Walde Selassie (d. 1938) became the leading Amharic writer, especially notable for allegorical compositions such as Wadaje lebbe (My Heart as My Friend). With the restoration of Ethiopian independence after the Italian occupation of 193641, a great impetus was given to Amharic literature, with Emperor Haile Selassie encouraging authors to produce many types of books, especially on moral and patriotic themes. Writers of merit during this period were Makonnen Endalkachew (who produced allegorical novels and plays), Kebede Mikael (verse dramas, some history and biography), and Tekle Tsodeq Makuria (histories). Stephen Graham Wright The Editors of the Encyclopdia Britannica Additional reading Taddesse Adera and Ali Jimale Ahmed (eds.), Silence Is Not Golden: A Critical Anthology of Ethiopian Literature (1995).