GENGHIS KHAN

born 1155, or 1162, or 1167, near Lake Baikal, Mongolia died Aug. 18, 1227 Genghis Khan, ink and colour on silk. In the National Palace Museum, Taipei. Genghis also spelled Ching-gis, Chingis, Jenghiz, or Jinghis, original name Temjin, also spelled Temuchin Mongolian warrior-ruler, one of the most famous conquerors of history, who consolidated tribes into a unified Mongolia and then extended his empire across Asia to the Adriatic Sea. Genghis Khan was a warrior and ruler of genius who, starting from obscure and insignificant beginnings, brought all the nomadic tribes of Mongolia under the rule of himself and his family in a rigidly disciplined military state. He then turned his attention toward the settled peoples beyond the borders of his nomadic realm and began the series of campaigns of plunder and conquest that eventually carried the Mongol armies as far as the Adriatic Sea in one direction and the Pacific coast of China in the other, leading to the establishment of the great Mongol Empire. born 1155, or 1162, or 1167, near Lake Baikal, Mongolia died Aug. 18, 1227 Genghis also spelled Chinggis, Chingis, Jenghiz, or Jinghis, original name Temjin, also spelled Temuchin Mongolian warrior-ruler, one of the most famous conquerors of history, who consolidated nomadic tribes into a unified Mongolia and extended his empire from China to Europe's Adriatic Sea. The leader of a destitute clan, Temjin acquired a fighting force of 20,000 neighbouring tribesmen (according to the anonymous saga the Secret History of the Mongols, c. 1240) in order to settle an interclan feud. He broke with his rival, Jamuka; overcame all contenders, Mongolian and Tatar, through executions and forced service; and by 1206 was acknowledged as Genghis Khan (Universal Ruler) of all Mongolian steppe people. Using more refined military tactics, he captured Peking (1215) and subjugated a declining China. He then led a savage devastation of the extensive Muslim empire of Khwarezm (now in Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan) about 121623 while his generals raided Iran and Russia. Learning the importance of towns and agriculture from his subjects, he improved his governmental structure. Genghis Khan's idea of the state was simple: the nomad warrior elite should remain in the steppes, drawing tribute from the conquered civilized kingdoms. But this concept could not withstand two corrosive trends: the nomads split into groups, each facing toward the subject state (China, Iran, etc.) from which it drew tribute; and in each group those who had to be detached for garrison and administrative service tended to be corrupted (or civilized) by their subjects. Additional reading Paul Ratchnevsky, Genghis Khan: His Life and Legacy (1991; originally published in German, 1983), is an important, scholarly biography, examining various aspects of Genghis Khan's personality and life and offering a critical discussion of original sources, which are sometimes at variance. Other biographies include B.I. Vladimirtsov, The Life of Chingis-Khan (1930, reissued 1969; originally published in Russian, 1922); Ralph Fox, Genghis Khan (1936); H. Desmond Martin, The Rise of Chingis Khan and His Conquest of North China (1950, reissued 1971); Ren Grousset, Conqueror of the World (1967, reissued 1972; originally published in French, 1944), containing a critical bibliography; R.P. Lister, Genghis Khan (1969, reissued 1989), an account of his early life based on a Mongol chronicle written in 1240 and recovered in the 20th century; Leo de Hartog, Genghis Khan, Conqueror of the World (1989; originally published in Dutch, 1979); and Michel Hoang, Genghis Khan (1990; originally published in French, 1988), emphasizing the military strategy and foresight of the ruler.Accessible versions of the only contemporary native Mongolian portrait of the early imperial period may be found in Francis Woodman Cleaves (trans. and ed.), The Secret History of the Mongols, trans. from Mongolian (1982); and The History and the Life of Chinggis Khan: The Secret History of the Mongols, trans. from Mongolian and annotated by Urgunge Onon (1990). For general reading, Leonardo Olschki, Marco Polo's Asia (1960; originally published in Italian, 1957), is recommended. Eustace D. Phillips, The Mongols (1969), is a brief general history of the early Mongols, concentrating on the period of expansion in the 13th century. The relevant pages from Ren Grousset, The Empire of the Steppes: A History of Central Asia (1970, reissued 1988; originally published in French, 1939), provide a concise account of the subject, and the whole book may be read with profit. Igor de Rachewiltz, Papal Envoys to the Great Khans (1971), presents a history of European exploration that includes a summary of 13th- and 14th-century literature (prior to Marco Polo) on Mongols, with a good bibliography. J.J. Saunders, The History of the Mongol Conquest (1971), is a general history, with an annotated bibliography and genealogical tables. A carefully researched history of Mongol conquests, illustrated with maps and tables, is offered in Peter Brent, Genghis Khan (also published as The Mongol Empire, 1976). David Morgan, The Mongols (1986), situates the achievements of Genghis Khan within a general survey of imperial Mongolia. A well-documented account of Mongol successes in Europe with specific military detail is found in James Chambers, The Devil's Horsemen, rev. and extended ed. (1988). Charles R. Bawden The Editors of the Encyclopdia Britannica