HERCULANEUM

ancient city of 4,000-5,000 inhabitants in Campania, Italy. It lay 5 miles (8 km) southeast of Naples, at the western base of Mount Vesuvius, and was destroyed-together with Pompeii, Torre Annunziata, and Stabiae-by the Vesuvius eruption of AD 79. The town of Ercolano (pop. [1995 est.] 59,695) now lies over part of the site. The excavations of Herculaneum and Pompeii in the mid-18th century precipitated the modern science of archaeology. Collectively, the ruins of Pompeii, Herculaneum, and Torre Annunziata were declared a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1997. Ancient tradition connected Herculaneum with the name of the Greek hero Heracles, an indication that the city was of Greek origin. There is, however, historical evidence that toward the end of the 6th century BC a primitive nucleus of Oscan-speaking inhabitants came under Greek hegemony there and that in the 4th century BC Herculaneum came under the domination of the Samnites. The city became a Roman municipium in 89 BC, when, having participated in the Social War ("war of the allies" against Rome), it was defeated by Titus Didius, a legate of Lucius Cornelius Sulla. Herculaneum was severely shaken by an earthquake in AD 62, and the serious damage suffered by its public and private buildings had not yet been repaired when it was buried by the Vesuvius eruption of August 24-25, AD 79. Because few human remains were found during early excavations, it was assumed that, unlike the people of Pompeii, most of the inhabitants succeeded in escaping toward Naples, in the direction opposite to the fall of lapilli and ashes. In the 1980s, however, excavations at the ancient shoreline of the Bay of Naples (an area that is now inland) uncovered more than 120 human skeletons, suggesting that numerous additional inhabitants had also perished while attempting to escape. /a>Nues ardentes (a type of pyroclastic flow) were the most likely cause of death. The particular circumstances of the burial of Herculaneum, unlike those of Pompeii, led to the formation over the city of a compact mass of tufaceous material about 50 to 60 feet (15 to 18 metres) deep. Although this layer made excavation very difficult, it preserved Herculaneum and prevented tampering and looting. The special conditions of ground humidity made possible the conservation of wooden frameworks of houses, wooden furniture, the hull of a sizable boat, pieces of cloth, and food (carbonized loaves of bread left within ovens). Thus, Herculaneum offers a detailed impression of private life that is only with difficulty achieved in other centres of the ancient world. Excavation began in the 18th century, when all memory of the existence of Herculaneum had been lost for centuries and the only available reports of it were those that had come down through the authors of antiquity, without any information as to the exact position of the ancient city. Quite by accident, in 1709, during the digging of a well, a wall was discovered that was later found to be a part of the stage of the Herculaneum theatre. Tunnels were soon dug at the site by treasure hunters, and many of the theatre area's artifacts were removed. Regular excavations were started in 1738 under the patronage of the king of Naples, and from 1750 to 1764 the military engineer Karl Weber served as director of excavations. Under Weber, diagrams and plans of the ruins were produced, and numerous artifacts were uncovered and documented. Magnificent paintings and a group of portrait statues were excavated from a building thought to be the ancient basilica of Herculaneum, and a large number of bronze and marble works of art were recovered from a suburban villa, called the Villa of the Papyri because of its having contributed a whole library of ancient papyri in Greek. These papyri, on philosophical subjects of Epicurean inspiration, are preserved in the National Library of Naples. Interior court with mosaic of Neptune and Amphitrite, from the House of Neptune and Amphitrite (1st 1/4 The excavations were resumed in 1823 with the intention of discontinuing the previous tunneling and instead working from above ground, a method used with success at Pompeii; up to 1835 the work proved to be of value, bringing to light the first houses of Herculaneum, among which was the peristyle of the House of Argus. Abandoned and again resumed in 1869, after the unification of Italy, the excavations continued until 1875, when, because of the poor results obtained and the presence of the inhabited dwellings of Resina (now Ercolano), they were once more abandoned. After the efforts of the English archaeologist Charles Waldstein to internationalize the excavations at Herculaneum (1904) by collecting contributions for this purpose from various nations in Europe and America, the work was finally resumed in May 1927 with Italian state funds and with the object of conducting the excavations with the same continuity as those of Pompeii. The results of this work, interrupted only by World War II, made it possible to have a clear picture of the ancient city. The larger decumanus ("main road") forms one side of the quarter of the ancient forum with its public buildings. The insulae ("blocks") to the south of the decumanus are laid out in a strictly geometric pattern facing the cardines ("crossroads"). Many of the nobler houses afforded their patrons a view of the bay. Inside the residential quarter, houses of rich republican and patrician construction alternate with houses of the middle class (such as the Trellis House), also finely decorated, or with commercial houses and workshops. The public monuments uncovered include the palaestra (sports ground), with a large portico surrounding a vast central piscina (swimming pool), and thermae (baths), one of which adjoins the former beachfront. This bath is in a remarkable state of preservation, having remained largely protected against the pyroclastic flows of the eruption. Excavation continues, since the demolition of part of Ercolano, at the forum of the ancient city and at the ancient coastline. Additional reading Amedeo Maiuri, Herculaneum, trans. from Italian, 7th ed. (1977, reissued 1989), is an important work. Andrew Wallace-Hadrill, Houses and Society in Pompeii and Herculaneum (1994), discusses the social history of ancient Roman housing. Christopher Charles Parslow, Rediscovering Antiquity: Karl Weber and the Excavation of Herculaneum, Pompeii, and Stabiae (1995), includes descriptions of excavation efforts from 1750 to 1764. Photographs and general accounts of discoveries are found in Marcel Brion, Pompeii and Herculaneum: The Glory and the Grief (1960, reprinted 1978; originally published in French, 1960); Michael Grant, Cities of Vesuvius: Pompeii and Herculaneum (1971); Theodor Kraus and Leonard von Matt, Pompeii and Herculaneum (1975; originally published in German, 1973); and Rick Gore, "After 2,000 Years of Silence: The Dead Do Tell Tales," National Geographic, 165(5):557-613 (May 1984).