HORIZON

The soil profile, showing the major layers from the O horizon (organic material) to the R horizon a distinct layer of soil, approximately parallel with the land surface, whose properties develop from the combined actions of living organisms and percolating water. Because these actions can vary in their effects with increasing depth, it is often the case that more than one horizon exists beneath the surface of any soil area, at depths ranging from only a few centimetres to several metres. One or more horizons make up what is known as the soil profile, the vertical sequence of distinct layers that is unique to each soil type. For general descriptive purposes, soil horizons are commonly given abbreviated designations based on their location in the soil profile and on their composition. From the surface downward, they are named O if they form at the land surface and are almost entirely constituted of litter and humus, A if they form at or near the land surface and show some humus accumulation, E if they lie below the land surface and exhibit a significant loss of clay and humus that gives them a bleached appearance, B if they are subsurface and show accumulations of material from upper layers, C if they are largely unweathered, unconsolidated subsurface mineral layers (frequently the parent material from which the upper layers have formed), and R if they are consolidated bedrock. A mature soil profile will show A, E, B, and C horizons in descending order. Special features of each horizon are delineated by lowercase suffixes, such as h (accumulated humus), k (carbonates), n (sodium), o (iron and aluminum oxides), q (silica), s (mixtures of metal oxides and humus), t (silicate clay), v (iron), y (gypsum), and z (soluble salts). For example, Bh designates a B horizon in which significant humus has accumulated by translocation. For the further classification of soils more precise technical concepts are necessary than the simple layer designations given above. One important concept is the epipedon, which is the uppermost horizon used to classify a soil within a designated area. Epipedons are characterized by their colour, texture, structure, and content of organic matter and certain plant nutrients (e.g., calcium, phosphate). Another important concept is that of subsurface diagnostic horizons. These are characterized by the type of accumulated weathering products that they contain (e.g., clay, mixtures of iron oxides and humus, or soluble salts) or by the possible presence of a hard, impermeable layer (e.g., an indurated calcium carbonate or iron-rich layer). in astronomy, boundary where the sky seems to meet the ground or sea. (In astronomy it is defined as the intersection on the celestial sphere of a plane perpendicular to a plumb line.) The higher the observer, the lower and more distant is his visible horizon. To one 5 feet (1.5 m) above the surface, the horizon is about 2.8 statute miles (4.5 km) away; and for one at 10,000 feet (3,048 m) altitude, it is about 126 miles (203 km). The distance in statute miles equals 1.224 times the square root of the height, in feet, above the surface. On bodies of different radius from that of the Earth, the horizon's distance is also different; e.g., when the eye is 5 feet (1.5 m) above a level lunar plain, the horizon is only 1.4 miles (2.3 km) away.