LEUCAS

Leo V byname Leo The Armenian ( b. Armeniad. Dec. 25, 820, Constantinople), Byzantine emperor responsible for inaugurating the second Iconoclastic period in the Byzantine Empire. When Bardanes Turcus and Nicephorus I were fighting over the Byzantine throne in 803, Leo at first joined Bardanes but later sided with Nicephorus. Leo distinguished himself as a general under Nicephorus I and Michael I and became strategus (general) of the Anatolikon district of the empire. He took part in the campaign of 813 against the Bulgars, but, when Michael unwisely refused the peace terms they offered, the Asian troops under Leo deserted at the Battle of Versinikia, near Adrianople. Leo then deposed Michael I and in July 813 replaced him. Meanwhile, Krum, the Bulgarian khan, had reached the walls of Constantinople. Leo succeeded in drawing him back and concluded a treaty with Krum's successor, Omortag, that determined the boundary between the two countries and provided a 30-year peace. In March 815 Leo deposed the Orthodox patriarch Nicephorus and convoked a synod for the following month that reimposed the decrees of the Iconoclast synod of Hieria of 754, which had opposed the use of icons (religious images). Leo was assassinated during a Christmas service in the church of Hagia Sophia by friends of Michael the Amorian, whom Leo had condemned to death the day before on a charge of treason. After the assassination Michael ascended the throne as Michael II. born Sept. 19, 866 died May 11, 912, Constantinople byname Leo The Wise, or The Philosopher Byzantine coemperor from 870 and emperor from 886 to 912, whose imperial laws, written in Greek, became the legal code of the Byzantine Empire. Leo was the son of Basil I the Macedonian, who had begun the codification, and his second wife, Eudocia Ingerina. Made coemperor in 870, Leo succeeded to the throne on his father's death. His foreign policy was directed mainly against the Arabs and the Bulgars. The able commander Nicephorus Phocas the Elder was recalled from his successful campaigns against the Lombards in south Italy to assist in the Balkans. After this Byzantium met with reverses in the West: Sicily was lost to the Arabs in 902, Thessalonica was sacked by Leo of Tripoli, and the Aegean was open to constant attack from Arab pirates. Steps were taken to strengthen the Byzantine navy, which successfully attacked the Arab fleet in the Aegean in 908. But the naval expedition of 911912 was defeated by Leo of Tripoli. Byzantium's enemy to the north was Simeon, the Bulgar ruler. Hostilities arose out of a trade dispute in 894, and the Byzantines, aided by the Magyars of the Danube-Dnieper region, forced Simeon to agree to a truce. With the help of the nomadic Pechenegs, however, Simeon in 896 took revenge on the Byzantines, forcing them to pay an annual tribute to the Bulgars. During Leo's reign the Russian prince Oleg sailed to Constantinople and in 907 obtained a treaty regulating the position of Russian merchants in Byzantium, which was formally ratified in 911. Because of his anxiety for a male heir Leo married four times, thus incurring the censure of the church. Educated by the patriarch Photius, Leo was more scholar than soldier. In addition to completing the canon of laws, he wrote several decrees (novels) on a wide range of ecclesiastical and secular problems. He also wrote a funeral panegyric on his father, liturgical poems, sermons and orations, secular poetry, and military treatises. Leo's image is in a mosaic over the central door of Hagia Sophia. born , Rome died , probably December 928, Rome pope from May to December 928. He was Pope John VIII's prime minister and later a cardinal priest when elected by the senatrix Marozia, then head of the powerful Roman Crescentii family, who deposed and imprisoned Leo's predecessor, Pope John X. His principal act was the regulation of the jurisdiction of the hierarchy in Dalmatia. born , Rome died July 13, 939, Rome pope from 936 to 939. Leo was probably a Benedictine monk when he succeeded John XI, who had been imprisoned by Duke Alberic II of Spoleto. In 936 he invited Abbot St. Odo of Cluny (then one of the most influential abbeys in western Europe) to help him settle the struggle between Hugh of Provence, king of Italy, and Alberic over Hugh's siege of Rome. He encouraged reform of the German clergy and forbade Archbishop Frederick of Mainz to enforce the conversion of Jews to Christianity, yet at the same time allowed him to expel all Jews who would not embrace Christianity. born , Rome died March 1?, 965 pope, or antipope, from 963 to 965. A Roman synod in December 963 deposed and expelled Pope John XII for dishonourable conduct and for instigating an armed conspiracy against the Holy Roman emperor Otto I the Great. Otto, who had marched into Rome with his army and had called the synod, subsequently influenced the election of Leo, then only a layman. When Otto departed, John and his partisans returned to Rome, where in February 964 John conducted a synod that deposed Leo, who then fled to Otto. John died suddenly in the following May. Ignoring Otto's candidate, Leo, the Romans elected Benedict V. The furious Otto again came to Rome, reinstated Leo by force in June 964, and deported Benedict. Some scholars regard Leo as an antipope until after Otto compelled his acceptance. Others consider either Leo or Benedict as antipopes. born Dec. 11, 1475, Florence died Dec. 1, 1521, Rome original name Giovanni de' Medici one of the most extravagant of the Renaissance popes (reigned 151321), who made Rome a centre of European culture and raised the papacy to significant political power in Europe. He depleted the papal treasury, and, by his response to the developing Reformation, he contributed to the dissolution of the unified Western church. Leo excommunicated Martin Luther in 1521. Additional reading William Roscoe, The Life and Pontificate of Leo the Tenth, 2 vol. (1853, new ed. 1973), the standard biography of Leo X (well documented and containing a good index); Ludwig von Pastor, The History of the Popes, from the Close of the Middle Ages, 3rd ed., vol. 78 (1950), the best source on the life and times of Leo X (well documented and well indexed); E.P. Rodocanachi, Le Pontificat de Lon X, 15131521 (1930), contains an excellent bibliography; G.K. Brown, Italy and the Reformation to 1550 (1933), a study of Pope Leo as a principal figure of the Reformation. original name Alessandro Ottaviano De' Medici born June 2, 1535, Florence died April 27, 1605, Rome pope from April 127, 1605. Pope Gregory XIII made him bishop of Pistoia, Italy, in 1573, archbishop of Florence in 1574, and cardinal in 1583. Elected to succeed Clement VIII on April 1, 1605, he died within the month. original name Annibale Sermattei Della Genga born Aug. 22, 1760, near Spoleto, Papal States died Feb. 10, 1829, Rome pope from 1823 to 1829. Ordained in 1783, Della Genga became private secretary to Pope Pius VI, who in 1793 sent him as ambassador to Luzern, Switz. In 1794 he was appointed ambassador to Cologne, subsequently being entrusted with missions to several German courts. Pope Pius VII created him cardinal bishop of Senigallia in 1816 (which office he resigned in 1818) and vicar general of Rome in 1820. Against Austria's opposition, Della Genga was elected pope on Sept. 28, 1823, by the influential zelanti (i.e., conservatives who objected to Pius VI's conciliatory policies and to Cardinal Ercole Consalvi's reforming liberalism). Under Leo, authoritarianism was reinstated in the Papal States, a reaction that caused the bourgeoisie to resent a government by priests. Although he reduced expenditure, thus reducing taxation, the precarious economic situation remained unchanged. In doctrinal matters, Leo strove to prevent the infiltration of liberal ideas and to strengthen the efficiency of the Inquisition. Thus, as was expected, he reversed Pius VI's policies. In the Papal States, Leo pursued a repressive policy while endeavouring to reorganize financial administration, but other governments opposed his foreign policies, thus effecting a political change. After some clumsy moves inspired by the zelanti, he recognized the need for moderation in view of the new outbreak of liberal propaganda and the revival of Gallicanism, an essentially French ecclesiastical doctrine advocating restriction of papal power. Following Consalvi's moderate lines, he negotiated concordats advantageous to the papacy with Hanover (1824) and with The Netherlands (1827). He condemned (May 1825) indifferentism, a doctrine advocating the equality of all religions, and Freemasonry, because of its secret practices that he considered pagan. That year he also revived the practice of holding jubilees, periodic observances in which all the faithful are invited to prayer and works of charity and penance for the sanctification of themselves and the world. After some hesitation he formally recognized (1827) the reorganized Hispanic dioceses; he had resisted because Spain demanded royal patronage in the Latin-American colonies. original name Vincenzo Gioacchino Pecci born March 2, 1810, Carpineto Romano, Papal States died July 20, 1903, Rome head of the Roman Catholic Church (18781903) who brought a new spirit to the papacy, manifested in more conciliatory positions toward civil governments, by care taken that the church not be opposed to scientific progress and by an awareness of the pastoral and social needs of the times. Additional reading C. de T'Serclaes, Le pape Lon XIII, 3 vol. (18941906), gives the official Vatican viewpoint (the first two volumes were reviewed by the Pope himself ); M. Spahn, Leo XIII (1905), offers critical evaluations (in German) from the point of view of German Reformkatholizismus (Critical Catholicism); a French point of view is found in F. Hayward, Lon XIII (1937). The essay by R. Aubert, Lon XIII, in I cattolici italiani dall'800 ad oggi, pp. 189220 (1964), utilizes the most recent works. On the various aspects of the work of Leo XIII as pope, see E.T. Gargan (ed.), Leo XIII and the Modern World (1961); and E. Soderini, Il pontificato di Leone XIII, 3 vol. (193233). town, Bundesland (federal state) Steiermark, southeast-central Austria, on the Mur River, northwest of Graz. An ancient settlement, it was reestablished as a town by Ottokar II of Bohemia in about 1263. Medieval buildings include the Maria am Waasen Church (12th century, rebuilt 15th century) with magnificent Gothic stained-glass windows, the parish church (166065), and the bell tower that has become a symbol of the city. Leoben is the home of the University of Mining and Metallurgy, established 1840, as well as other technical schools. A centre of upper Styrian lignite mining, the town manufactures iron, textiles, and beer; it is also a tourist centre. The industrial suburbs of Donawitz and Gss were incorporated into Leoben in 1939. Pop. (1981) 32,006. flourished 4th century BC Greek sculptor to whom the Apollo Belvedere (Roman copy, Vatican Museum) is often attributed. About 353c. 350 BC Leochares worked with Scopas on the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus, one of the Seven Wonders of the World. Most of his attributions are from ancient records. The base of a statue inscribed with his name, however, has been found in Athens. This work, a bronze lion hunt of Alexander, was executed by Leochares and Lysippus at Delphi. He was commissioned by King Philip of Macedon to produce gold and ivory statues of the king's family, which were installed in the Philippeum at Olympia about 338 BC. The Vatican statuette of Ganymede and the Eagle is thought to be a copy of a work by Leochares. died Aug. 31, 1057, Bromley, Eng. Anglo-Saxon earl of Mercia (from some date prior to 1032), one of the three great earls of 11th-century England, who took a leading part in public affairs. On the death of King Canute in 1035, Leofric supported the claim of Canute's son Harold to the throne against that of Hardecanute; and, during the quarrel between Edward the Confessor and Earl Godwine in 1051, he played the part of a mediator. Through his efforts civil war was averted, and in accordance with his advice the settlement of the dispute was referred to the Witan. Because Chester was his principal residence and the seat of his government, he is sometimes called Earl of Chester. His wife was Godgifu, famous in legend as Lady Godiva (q.v.). Both husband and wife were noted as liberal benefactors to the church, among their foundations being the famous Benedictine monastery at Coventry. town (parish), unitary authority and historic county of Herefordshire, England, situated on the River Lugg, a tributary of the Wye. A religious house was founded on the site in 660, and the parish church of Saints Peter and Paul was the former priory church. The town was incorporated in 1554 and was a centre for the wool trade from the 13th to the 18th century. The contemporary economy is based on agricultural produce and livestock, and there are cattle and sheep markets. Agricultural implements are manufactured. Half-timbered houses include the reconstructed 17th-century town hall. Pop. (1991) 9,543. city, Worcester county, north-central Massachusetts, U.S. It lies on the Nashua River, just southeast of Fitchburg and about 40 miles (64 km) northwest of Boston. The site, purchased from the Nashua Indians in 1701, was originally part of Lancaster. It was separately incorporated as a town in 1740 and named for Leominster, England. Combs were first made there in 1775 by Obadia Hills from animal horns, and the manufacture of combs subsequently became the leading economic activity. After the introduction of celluloid as a material for comb making in the 20th century, a more diversified economy developed. The local economy is now based on the manufacture of plastic articles, machinery, and other products, although services and trade are also major sources of employment. Leominster was the birthplace of the traveling orchardist John Chapman (Johnny Appleseed), and Johnny Appleseed Civic Day is celebrated in June. Recreational lands include the Lane-Comerford Area; the Notown, Haynes, and Fall Brook reservoirs; and Leominster State Forest, which has nearly 7 square miles (18 square km) of woodlands and lakes. The scenic highway known as the Mohawk Trail is another attraction. Inc. city, 1915. Pop. (1990) city, 38,145; Fitchburg-Leominster PMSA, 102,797; (1996 est.) city, 39,263; (1994 est.) Fitchburg-Leominster PMSA, 139,435. Spanish Len, medieval Spanish kingdom. Leon proper included the cities of Len, Salamanca, and Zamorathe adjacent areas of Vallodolid and Palencia being disputed with Castile, originally its eastern frontier. The kings of Leon ruled Galicia, Asturias, and much of the county of Portugal before Portugal gained independence about 1139. The rise of the medieval Leonese kingdom began with Garca I (909914), who set up his court on the site of the former Roman permanent camp of the Legio VII Gemina, abandoning the former Asturian capital at Oviedo (see Asturias). The period of Leonese hegemony in Christian Spain nominally lasted until the death of Alfonso VII (1157), but it had, long before, been seriously undermined by the conquests of Sancho III Garcs the Great (100035) of Navarre and by the elevation, on his death, of Castile from county to kingdom. During the 10th century, when the caliphate of Crdoba was at its most powerful, Leon lost ground in the struggle with the Moors, and its kings often had to accept a de facto submission to the caliphs. Leon, however, had inherited from the Asturian monarchy a strong attachment to Visigothic tradition, and its rulers, sometimes taking the title of emperor or king of all Spain, furthered the Reconquest wherever possible. The second period in Leonese history runs from 1157 to 1230, when the kingdom was ruled, in separation from Castile, by its own kings, Ferdinand II (115788) and Alfonso IX (11881230). Relations with Castile were rarely friendly, but Leon was a stable political entity during this time and won notable victories over the Moors in Leonese Extremadura. After the final union with Castile (1230), Leonese political and administrative institutions were, for a time, maintained, and the records of the Cortes show that some sense of the separate identity of Leon survived into the first half of the 14th century. During the first century of its existence, there was a large influx of Mozarabic immigrants into Leon. These introduced strong Arabic linguistical and cultural influences into the kingdom. Modern Spanish historiographyconcerned often to justify medieval Castilian separatismhas tended to portray medieval Leon as an archaizing, Byzantine type of state overready to compromise with the Moors. The evidence for this is not wholly convincing. Leon successfully bore the brunt of the caliphate's attacks and seems to have been the first Peninsular kingdom to evolve popular parliamentary institutions. The modern provinces of Len, Salamanca, and Zamora, roughly coterminous with the medieval kingdom, were incorporated after 1979 into the comunidad autnoma (autonomous community) of Castile-Len (q.v.). provincia, in the Castile-Len comunidad autnoma (autonomous community), northwestern Spain, consisting of the northern part of the former Kingdom of Leon. It has an area of 5,972 square miles (15,468 square km). In the north are the lofty Cantabrian Mountains, the highest peak of which is the Torre de Cerredo (8,668 feet ). The natural regions are El Bierzo, a lowland in the northwest drained by the Sil River, where mining has replaced agriculture; La Montaa; and the Meseta Central (plateau), a dry desert with fertile strips, as along the Orbigo River. The main catchment is the basin of the Esla River, a tributary of the Duero (Portuguese: Douro) River and site of a large dam at Ricobayo. Len is the leading producer of hops in Spain; other main crops include cereals and flax. The provincia also has timber resources (oak, beech, and chestnut), and cattle, donkeys, and sheep are bred. Mineral resources are considerable and include deposits of anthracite, iron, bituminous coal, and mica; Ponferrada is a major coal- and iron-mining area. Chemical factories in Len (q.v.) city, the provincial capital, manufacture antibiotics. Pop. (1986 est.) 527,493. city situated in western Nicaragua. The city of Len was founded on the edge of Lake Managua in 1524, but after an earthquake it was moved in 1610 to the site of the old Indian capital and shrine of Sutiaba. Len was the capital of the Spanish province and of the Republic of Nicaragua until 1855, although its great political and commercial rival, Granada, long disputed the honour. The rivalry brought on civil wars that resulted in the coming of William Walker, the American filibuster, who was expelled in 1857. Len was a scene of heavy fighting between Sandinista guerrillas and government troops in 197879, leaving much of the centre of the city in ruins. Len long has been noted as a liberal political and intellectual centre of Nicaragua. In 1952 the University of Len (founded in 1812) became part of the National University of Nicaragua. Rubn Daro, one of the greatest Spanish-American poets, lived and was educated there. Nicaragua's second largest city, Len is the centre of an important agricultural and commercial region: cotton, sugarcane, and rice are the principal crops; cattle are raised for export; and manufactures include processed cotton, cigars, shoes, and saddlery. Len is linked to Managua, the national capital, and other cities by the Pacific Railway and a paved road. Pop. (1985 est.) 100,982. in full Len De Los Aldamas, city, northwestern Guanajuato estado (state), central Mexico. It stands in a fertile plain on the Turbio River, 6,182 feet (1,884 m) above sea level. Although Lon was first settled in 1552, it was not formally founded until 1576 and was given city status in 1830. At that time the words de los Aldamas were added to its name, in honour of Juan Aldama, a leader in the struggle for Mexican independence. Once subject to disastrous floods, the city is now protected by a large dam and has developed into an important industrial and commercial centre for the surrounding hinterland, considered one of the richest cereal-producing districts of Mexico. Leather goods, gold and silver embroideries, steel products, textiles, and soap are manufactured in the city, which also contains tanneries and flour mills. Len, northwest of Mexico City and northeast of Guanajuato, can be reached by rail, highway, or air. Pop. (1980) 596,000. city, capital of Len provincia, in the Castile-Len comunidad autnoma (autonomous community), northwestern Spain, lying on the northwestern part of the Meseta Central (plateau), at the confluence of the Bernesga and Toro rivers. The city developed from the camp of the Roman 7th Gemina Legion; its modern name is a corruption of the Latin legio. It was held by the Goths during the 6th and 7th centuries, falling to the Moors, who held it until 850. In the 10th century Len became the capital of the kingdom of Asturias and Leon when Garca I transferred his court there from Oviedo. On the pilgrimage route to Santiago de Compostela, Len exercised considerable political, cultural, and economic influence during the Middle Ages. It was an important commercial centre, with many craft guilds and well-known fairs and markets. The street names of the old part of the city recall the offices and structure of the medieval town. A monumental city with a wealth of artistic interest, it attracts large numbers of tourists. Especially notable are the fine Gothic cathedral of Santa Mara de Regla (founded 1199) with its fine stained-glass windows known as the Pulchra Leonina; the Romanesque collegiate church of San Isidoro (11th century); and the Renaissance-style church and monastery of San Marcos, converted into a state-run inn. The economic life of the city declined in the 16th century and did not revive until the 19th with the development of mining. By the mid-20th century, Len was resurgent, with a new city and industrialization. Pop. (1986 est.) 133,537. born 1527, Belmonte, Cuenca Province, Spain died Aug. 23, 1591, Madrigal de las Altas mystic and poet who contributed greatly to Spanish Renaissance literature. Len was a monk educated chiefly at Salamanca, where he obtained his first chair in 1561. Academic rivalry between the Dominicans and the Augustinians, whom he had joined in 1544, led to his denunciation to the Inquisition for criticizing the text of the Vulgate, imprudent at that period in Spain, particularly because one of his great-grandmothers had been Jewish. After almost five years' imprisonment (157276), he was exonerated and restored to his chair, which, however, he resigned in favour of the man who had replaced him. But he subsequently gained a new one, also at Salamanca; a second denunciation, in 1582, did not succeed. His prose masterpiece, De los nombres de Cristo (158385), a treatise in the dialogue form popularized by the followers of Erasmus on the various names given to Christ in Scripture, is the supreme exemplar of Spanish classical prose style: clear, lofty, and, though studied, entirely devoid of affectation. His translations from Greek, Latin, Hebrew, and Italian include the Song of Solomon (modern edition by J. Guilln, 1936) and the Book of Job, both with commentary. Len's poems, containing many of the motifs of De los nombres de Cristo, were posthumously published by Francisco Gmez de Quevedo y Villegas in 1631 because their sincerity of expression and emphasis on content rather than form were useful in the struggle against the attempts of the Gongorists to re-Latinize the language. The Spanish classicists of the 18th century used his lyrics as models. Among his more familiar poems are Vida retirada (1557; Withdrawn Life) and Noche Serena (1571; Serene Night). His poetic works reflect the tension between his Horatian ideals of moderation and the turbulent life of a man of an honest and naturally pugnacious temperament inhabiting a world of ecclesiastical intrigue and rancorous academic politics. His other works include theological treatises and commentaries in Latin on various psalms and books of the Bible and La perfecta casada (1583; The Perfect Married Woman), a commentary in Spanish on Proverbs 31, incorporating elements of the medieval ascetic tradition of misogyny interspersed with picturesque glimpses of feminine customs of the day. born April 7, 1896, New York City died April 18, 1947, New York City byname of Benjamin Leiner American world lightweight (135-pound) boxing champion from May 28, 1917, when he knocked out Freddy Welsh in nine rounds in New York City, until Jan. 15, 1925, when he retired. He is regarded as one of the cleverest defensive boxers in the history of professional boxing. A professional fighter from 1911 to 1942, he had 210 bouts, winning 89 (45 by knockouts), with 115 no-decision bouts. He was noted for distracting his opponents by talking to them. Leonard retired after successfully defending the lightweight title seven times and losing on a foul in an attempt to win the welterweight (147-pound) championship from Jack Britton (June 26, 1922). In 193132, after several years of inactivity, he had numerous fights in the welterweight division, but he retired once more after being knocked out by Jimmy McLarnin on Oct. 7, 1932. He died while refereeing a bout in the St. Nicholas Arena, New York City. born Sept. 8, 1907, Rocky Mount, N.C., U.S. died Nov. 27, 1997, Rocky Mount byname of Walter Fenner Leonard American baseball player who was considered one of the best first basemen in the Negro leagues. He was among the first Negro Leaguers to receive election into the Baseball Hall of Fame. Leonard was a semiprofessional player for several years in North Carolina before losing his job with a railroad and deciding to pursue full-time professional baseball in 1933. That year, he played with the Portsmouth Firefighters, the Baltimore Stars, and the Brooklyn Royal Giants. He signed with the Homestead Grays in 1934 and played 17 years with them, through the 1950 season. Leonard and catcher Josh Gibson led the Grays to nine consecutive Negro National League championships from 1937 through 1945. The Grays won a 10th pennant and their third Negro World Series title in 1948. Leonard was selected to start in the East-West All-Star game a record 11 times. A left-handed hitter, he finished his Negro league career with a batting average of about .341 and a .382 mark against major leaguers in exhibition games. In 1943 Leonard was part of Satchel Paige's All-Stars, playing against major league All-Stars and hitting .500 in eight games. But it was home runs that made Leonard and Gibson the most-feared tandem in the Negro leagues, much like Lou Gehrig and Babe Ruth of the major league New York Yankees. Clark Griffith, the owner of the Washington Senators of the major leagues, considered signing the pair, but never did. After Homestead disbanded, Leonard played five more years, in Mexico and also with Portsmouth, until 1955, when he was 48 years old. Leonard was inducted into the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1972, along with Gibson, his long-time teammate. Leonard served as vice president of the Rocky Mount Leafs in the Class-A Carolina League. born Oct. 11, 1925, New Orleans, La., U.S. in full Elmore John Leonard, Jr. American author of popular crime novels known for his use of local colour and his uncanny ear for realistic dialogue. Leonard served in the U.S. Naval Reserve (194346), then graduated with a bachelor of philosophy degree from the University of Detroit, Michigan, in 1950. While composing scripts for advertising and educational films, he began writing western novels and short stories. The 1957 films 3:10 to Yuma and The Tall T were based on his novelettes, and Leonard's novel Hombre (1961) was also adapted for film in 1967. He made a transition to the crime novel with the publication in 1969 of The Big Bounce. Having found his niche, Leonard produced a series of novels set primarily in Detroit and Florida. These usually featured working-class protagonists; dumb, larcenous ne'er-do-wells; piggish, sweaty villains; violent, out-of-control, sex-crazed brutes; and women in distress. Leonard's villains are particularly colourful, while his protagonists, whether policemen, civilians, or honest criminals, provide his stories' moral focus. Among his outstanding crime novels of the 1970s are Fifty-two Pickup (1974; filmed as The Ambassador, 1984, and 52 Pickup, 1986), Swag (1976; also published as Ryan's Rules), Unknown Man No. 89 (1977), and The Switch (1978). His novel Stick (1983; filmed 1985) became a best-seller. His subsequent novels include LaBrava (1983), Glitz (1985; filmed for television 1988), Bandits (1987), Freaky Deaky (1988), and Rum Punch (1992). Get Shorty (1990) and Out of Sight (1996) were both also made into films. born May 17, 1956, Rocky Mount, N.C., U.S. Leonard (right) celebrating his victory against Ayub Kalule for the WBA junior middleweight title, byname of Ray Charles Leonard African-American boxer, known for his agility and finesse, who won 36 of 39 professional matches and several national titles. As an amateur he took an Olympic gold medal in the light welterweight class at the 1976 Games in Montreal, Can. By his mid-teens Leonard proved adept at boxing, and as an amateur he won 145 of 150 bouts and garnered two National Golden Glove championships (1973, 1974), two Amateur Athletic Union championships (1974, 1975), and a gold medal at the 1975 Pan American Games. Following his Olympic victory in 1976, he announced his retirement from the sport but reentered the ring as a professional on Feb. 5, 1977. Leonard weighed in at 5 feet 9 inches (1.75 m) and 147 pounds (66.7 kg). In November 1979 he defeated the reigning World Boxing Council (WBC) welterweight champion, Wilfred Bentez, only to lose the title in June 1980 in a famous match against Roberto Durn. Five months later Leonard regained the title by defeating Durn, and he successfully defended it thereafter, winning the World Boxing Association (WBA) version of the title with a victory over Thomas Hearns in 1981. Earlier that same year he had won the WBA junior middleweight title with a ninth-round knockout of Ayub Kalule. Leonard retired from prizefighting in 1982 and then again in 1984 but was enticed to return in April 1987 to face the up-and-coming Marvelous Marvin Hagler, whom he defeated to capture the WBC middleweight title in what was considered one of the greatest professional boxing matches of all time. Long a popular figure, Leonard's retirement in 1991 marked his final exit from boxing. He remained associated with the sport as a television commentator. born Jan. 29, 1908, Valdobbiadene, Italy Italian geologist and prehistorian, known for his research on the stratigraphy and paleontology of the Triassic invertebrates (from 190,000,000 to 225,000,000 years ago) and the Permian vertebrates (from 225,000,000 to 280,000,000 years ago). Leonardi was a fellow at the University of Ferrara, Italy (193549), where he later served as professor of geology and director of the geology institute. His works include studies of the tectonics (the movement and deformation of the Earth's surface) and stratigraphy (the description and interpretation of rock successions) of the Dolomite Alps and development of a new theory on their evolution. He also discovered a new Mousterian prehistoric culture, the Bernardinian. He wrote L'evoluzione dei viventi (1950; The Evolution of Living Things), Carlo Darwin (1966), Le Dolomiti (1967), and Trattato di geologia (1963; Treatise of Geology). post-Wolfcampian time of deposition of the Lower Permian Series of rock strata in the United States, especially well-developed in the Southwest (the Permian Period began about 280,000,000 years ago and lasted about 55,000,000 years). The Leonardian is defined on the basis of exposures seen in the Lenox hills in the Glass Mountains, Texas, where it consists of more than 600 m (2,000 feet) of gray, silty shales interbedded with light-gray limestones. In central Texas, Leonardian strata are seen as red beds, channel sandstones, gray shales, and thin, widespread limestones. These strata contain a well-developed reptile and amphibian faunal assemblage. In the Guadalupe Mountains and the Diablo Mountains, wholly marine Leonardian strata exhibit two strikingly distinct facies: a white limestone, the Victorio Peak Limestone, and a black, thin-bedded limestone formation, the Bone Spring Limestone. The Victorio Peak Limestone was deposited on a broad platform with shallow lagoons; the black Bone Spring Limestone accumulated in deep, poorly oxygenated, fetid basins where conditions were inimical to life and organically rich sediments accumulated slowly. born 1452, Vinci, Republic of Florence [now in Italy] died May 2, 1519, Cloux, France Self-portrait by Leonardo da Vinci, chalk drawing, 1512; in the Palazzo Reale, Turin, Italy. Italian painter, draftsman, sculptor, architect, and engineer whose genius, perhaps more than that of any figure, epitomized the Renaissance humanist ideal. His Last Supper (149597) and Mona Lisa (150306) are among the most widely popular and influential paintings of the Renaissance. His notebooks reveal a spirit of scientific inquiry and a mechanical inventiveness that were centuries ahead of their time. The unique fame that Leonardo enjoyed in his lifetime and that, filtered and purified by historical criticism, has remained undimmed to the present day is based on the equally unique universality of his spirit. Leonardo's universality is more than many-sidedness. True, at the time of the Renaissance and the period of humanism, many-sidedness was a highly esteemed quality; but it was by no means rare. Many other good artists possessed it. Leonardo's universality, on the other hand, was a spiritual force, peculiarly his own, that generated in him an unlimited desire for knowledge and guided his thinking and behaviour. An artist by disposition and endowment, he found that his eyes were his main avenue to knowledge; to Leonardo, sight was man's highest sense organ because sight alone conveyed the facts of experience immediately, correctly, and with certainty. Hence, every phenomenon perceived became an object of knowledge. Saper vedere (knowing how to see) became the great theme of his studies of man's works and nature's creations. His creativity reached out into every realm in which graphic representation is used: he was painter, sculptor, architect, and engineer. But he went even beyond that. His superb intellect, his unusual powers of observation, and his mastery of the art of drawing led him to the study of nature itself, which he pursued with method and penetrating logicand in which his art and his science were equally revealed. born 1452, Vinci, Republic of Florence [now in Italy] died May 2, 1519, Cloux, Fr. Italian painter, draftsman, sculptor, architect, and engineer whose genius, perhaps more than that of any other figure, epitomized the Renaissance humanist ideal. His Last Supper (149597) and Mona Lisa (150306) are among the most widely popular and influential paintings of the Renaissance. His notebooks reveal a spirit of scientific inquiry and a mechanical inventiveness that were centuries ahead of his time. A brief account of the life and works of Leonardo da Vinci follows; for a full biography, see Leonardo da Vinci. Leonardo was probably apprenticed to the sculptor Andrea del Verrocchio, receiving a diversified training, and painted in Florence until 1481. He worked (148299) in Milan as artist and technical adviser on architecture and engineering, already displaying his amazing versatility. After short visits to Mantua and Venice (1499/1500), he returned, honoured, to Florence, remaining there until 1506, though he visited Rome in 1502 and 1503. Again in Milan (150613), he later went, by way of Rome (151316), to France at the invitation of King Francis I. His prestige remained high at the French court and later contributed to Vasari's fable, now discredited, of Leonardo's having died in the arms of the king. Leonardo's surviving works consist primarily of a few paintings together with many drawings, scientific diagrams, and notes on diverse subjects. Even though relatively little of his oeuvre has survived, Leonardo's genius has maintained its power to fire the imagination. Additional reading Angela Ottino Della Chiesa (ed.), The Complete Paintings of Leonardo da Vinci (1967, reissued 1985; originally published in Italian, 1967), catalogs the paintings. The standard publication on the drawings is Kenneth Clark, The Drawings of Leonardo da Vinci in the Collection of Her Majesty the Queen at Windsor Castle, 2nd ed., rev. with Carlo Pedretti, 3 vol. (1968). A.E. Popham (ed.), The Drawings of Leonardo da Vinci, 2nd ed. (1947, reissued 1973), is important for the study of Leonardo as a draftsman. A. Marioni", I manoscritti di Leonardo da Vinci, in Comitato Nazionale Per Le Onoranze A Leonardo Da Vinci Nel Quinto Centenario Della Nascita, Leonardo: Saggi e richerche (1954), is a concise summary of all manuscripts, their facsimile editions, and their chronology and contains other excellent essays by various authors on Leonardo as artist and scientist. The Madrid Codices, 5 vol. (1974), contains facsimiles of the codices (vol. 12), commentary by Ladislao Reti (vol. 3), and Reti's transcription and translation of the codices into English (vol. 45). Also of interest is Ladislao Reti, The Two Unpublished Manuscripts of Leonardo da Vinci in the Biblioteca Nacional of Madrid, Burlington Magazine, 110:1024 (January/February 1968), with extended discussion in the February 1969 issue, pp. 111191. A. Philip McMahon (trans.), Treatise on Painting, 2 vol. (1956), is a facsimile edition of Codex Urbinas Latinus 1270, accompanied by an English translation. Kenneth D. Keele and Carlo Pedretti, Leonardo da Vinci: Corpus of the Anatomical Studies in the Collection of Her Majesty the Queen at Windsor Castle, 3 vol. (197880), includes a volume of facsimile plates. The best anthologies of Leonardo's literary heritage are Edward McCurdy (ed. and trans.), The Notebooks of Leonardo da Vinci, 2nd ed., 2 vol. (1955, reissued 1977); and Jean Paul Richter (compiler and ed.), The Literary Works of Leonardo da Vinci, trans. from Italian, 3rd ed., 2 vol. (1970). A selection of stories, with drawings, from Leonardo's notebooks is found in Emery Kelen (ed.), Fantastic Tales, Strange Animals, Riddles, Jests, and Prophecies of Leonardo da Vinci (1971). Martin Kemp (ed.), Leonardo on Painting: An Anthology of Writings (1989), is a readable and organized translated collection of Leonardo's notes on art. Istituto Geografico De Agostini, Leonardo da Vinci (1956; originally published in Italian, 1938), an exhibition catalog, contains numerous essays and is a richly illustrated compendium of Leonardo's artistic and scientific activity.The two standard publications on Leonardo sources are Luca Beltrami (ed.), Documenti e memorie riguardanti la vita e le opere di Leonardo da Vinci in ordine cronologico (1919); and Gerolamo Calvi, I manoscritti di Leonardo da Vinci, dal punto di vista cronologico, storico e biografico (1925, reissued 1982). Additional sources of information include Ettore Verga, Bibliografia Vinciana, 14931930, 2 vol. (1931, reprinted 1970); and Raccolta Vinciana, fascicle 120 (190564).Studies of Leonardo's life and works are found in Gabriel Sailles, Lonard de Vinci: l'artiste & le savant, new, rev. and augmented ed. (1912); Woldemar Von Seidlitz, Leonardo da Vinci, new ed. edited by Kurt Zoege Von Manteuffel (1935), in German, accompanied by extensive documentation; Ludwig H. Heydenreich, Leonardo da Vinci, 2 vol. (1954; originally published in German, 1953); Richard McLanathan, Images of the Universe: Leonardo da Vinci: The Artist as Scientist (1966); Morris Philipson (ed.), Leonardo da Vinci: Aspects of the Renaissance Genius (1966), containing valuable contributions to the historical and psychological aspects of Leonardo; V.P. Zubov, Leonardo da Vinci (1968; originally published in Russian, 1961); C.D. O'Malley (ed.), Leonardo's Legacy: An International Symposium (1969), a collection of essays exploring various aspects of Leonardo's works; Ritchie Calder, Leonardo & the Age of the Eye (1970), with emphasis on his artistic as well as his scientific work; Ladislao Reti (ed.), The Unknown Leonardo (1974, reprinted 1990), 10 essays discussing aspects of Leonardo's p