MODOC AND KLAMATH

two neighbouring North American Indian tribes of south central Oregon and northern California, speaking related languages (or dialects) of Penutian stock and sharing many cultural traits. Their territory lay in a great trough in the southern Cascade Range, some 100 miles (160 kilometres) long and 25 miles wide, dotted with marshes, lakes, rivers, and streams. The Klamath, in the northern sectors, were primarily fishers and hunters of waterfowl; the Modoc, in the southern sectors, were also fishers but relied more on gathering edible roots, seeds, and berries and on hunting various game. Both tribes are considered to be of the Plateau culture area, though they were influenced by surrounding Indians in California, the north Pacific coast, and the Great Basin to the east. The tribes were divided into relatively autonomous villages, each with its own leaders and shaman (medicine man); the villages, though, would ally for war, and members of different villages often married. During winter, when snowdrifts could reach six feet (two metres) or more, most village families lived in semi-subterranean, earth-covered lodges, usually one family to a lodge. Poorer families lived in simpler mat-covered houses. In summer the usual dwelling was either a domed house of poles and matting or a lean-to of brush. Sweat houses, used by both men and women, doubled as community centres for prayers and other religious activities. Religious belief focused largely on guardian spirits, whose aid was sought for all manner of human accomplishments. In 1864 the U.S. government pressed the two tribes to relinquish most of their territory and take up residence on a reservation around Upper Klamath Lake. The land was traditionally Klamath, however, and the Klamath treated the Modoc as intruders; the U.S. government, moreover, failed in its treaty obligations to supply rations to the Modoc. Hence, in 1870 an insurgent band of Modocs under Kintpuash, a subchief known to the whites as Captain Jack, bolted the reservation, and efforts to induce their return precipitated the Modoc War of 187273. About 80 warriors and their families retreated to the California Lava Beds, a land of complex ravines and caves, where they were able to resist dislodgment. After the murder of Brig. Gen. Edward Canby, who headed a peace commission in April 1873, the war was prosecuted more vigorously. Betrayed by four of his followers, Captain Jack surrendered and was hanged on October 3. His followers were removed to Oklahoma, though in 1909 survivors were allowed to return to Oregon. In 1954 the federal government terminated its relationship with the inhabitants of the Klamath reservation. In 1961 and 1974 the land was sold, and the proceeds were distributed among the former residents. Most of the land was incorporated in the Winema National Forest.