NURHACHI

born 1559, Manchuria died Sept. 30, 1626 also spelled Nurhachu, formal title Kundulun Khan, reign title T'ien Ming, Juchen title Geren Gurun Be Ujire Genggiyen (Brilliant Emperor Who Benefits All Nations) temple name T'ai Tsu, posthumous name Wu Huang-ti, or Kao Huang-ti chieftain of the Chien-chou Juchen, a Manchurian tribe, and one of the founders of the Manchu, or Ch'ing, dynasty. His first attack on China (1618) presaged his son Dorgon's conquest of the Chinese empire. The Juchen (Jurchen) were a Tungus people who belonged to those border groups at the periphery of the Chinese empire that normally were under the influence of the Chinese imperial court. Nurhachi's tribe was the so-called Chien-chou Juchen, one of five Juchen tribes of Manchuria. The Chien-chou Juchen lived to the east of the Chinese border in the Long White Mountains north of the Yalu River. Four other Juchen tribes were located farther north of the central forest and steppe region of Manchuria. These tribes were rivals for power in a frontier relationship that alternated between fighting and cooperation, which included intermarriage. In this setting, Nurhachi established his career from very small beginnings. Born in 1559, he was called to leadership in his early 20s, after his father and grandfather had been killed in battle with rivals, supported in this case by China's Ming dynasty, which fostered rivalries among tribes on its borders as a way to make them less dangerous. At first, therefore, Nurhachi had to fight for survival in a situation of decline and disintegration of his own tribe. In 1586 he defeated a rival in his own tribe, who was supported by the Chinese. From this basic success, Nurhachi moved on to destroy, one by one, the challenges of the other Juchen states. To isolate his Juchen opponents from the Chinese, Nurhachi invaded the Chinese-controlled part of Manchuria and moved, thus, on to the attack against the Chinese empire. In preparation and while defeating Juchen rivals, Nurhachi established a Manchu state, which at first remained undefined in its political relationship to his Manchurian opponents as well as to the Chinese empire. But its potential became clearer as the organization advanced. In 1599, under Nurhachi's direction, a Manchu nobleman and scholar, Erdeni, created a Manchu system of writing that laid the foundation for a Manchu national literature. This was the year also in which the first of the Juchen rivals was defeated and incorporated into the Nurhachi state. In 1601 Nurhachi established what was to become the military organization of the Manchus, the banner system. Although basically military, the banners were also units of administration and taxation for the Manchu people. Their commanders and administrators were appointed by Nurhachi, thus injecting an administrative structure into the Juchen tribal system. He assigned the four banners to three of his sons and one nephew, thereby preserving a part of the clan tradition without endangering his own authority. There were originally four banners; four more, established in 1615, were also given to reliable relatives. This ingenious transformation of a tribal group into a military bureaucracy, which may have been inspired by the military-political structure of Chinese frontier settlements in Manchuria and elsewhere, prepared the way for the Manchu conquest of China. To provide an economic base for expansion, Nurhachi shrewdly used his position in Manchuria to amass a great fortune from his monopoly of mining in the area and the trade in pearls, fur, and ginseng (a medicinal root) from the area and from Korea. He even developed a new, profitable method of curing ginseng. He also accumulated silver reserves from his tribute missions to Peking, which combined tribute with the trading ventures. Nurhachi launched his first attack against China in 1618. By that time, he already had defeated two more of the Juchen rivals, the Hoifa and the Ula, and incorporated them in his union, and the final showdown with the most dangerous opponent, the Yehe, and their Chinese supporters was at hand. The Chinese border city of Fushun was captured when its commander, Li Yung-fang, defected to the Manchu side. This defection was possible only because the Chinese official saw in the Manchu system the opportunity of serving a Manchu ruler without abandoning his Chinese cultural and political experience. He was only the first of a number of Chinese who surrendered or were captured and entered Manchu service in an administration that adapted many Chinese methods. Nurhachi's relationship to the Ming emperor at Peking was at first ambiguous. He himself went several times at the head of tribute missions to Peking. In 1601, when the four banners were established, Nurhachi issued a vague claim of having founded a great Yeh, a family realm or state. In 1616, before the attack against Fu-shun, Nurhachi proclaimed himself as khan (emperor), using the Chinese phrase T'ien Ming (Heavenly Mandated). He called his dynasty Chin or sometimes Hou Chin (Later Chin) to indicate a continuation of the Juchen dynasty of the 12th century. Even then, this assertion of Imperial authority did not necessarily imply a challenge to the supreme authority of the Ming, since the Chin dynasty of the 12th century had never ruled the whole of China. The attack against Imperial Chinese forces that followed in 1618 was justified by seven alleged grievances, accusations against the Chinese for their support of his enemies, their responsibility for the killing of Nurhachi's father and grandfather, and other complaints, all within the loyalty relationship between the Ming and his own state. Nurhachi's ambition, however, clearly went further. He moved his capital into Chinese Manchuria, first to Liao-yang and finally to Shen-yang (Mukden), in 1625, and from there attempted to defeat the Chinese forces guarding the entrance to China proper. In February 1626 he was defeated for the first time by the Chinese at Ningyun, and he died September 30 of wounds. Nurhachi thus never saw final success of his great politicalmilitary venture. On the foundation he established, however, his successors carried out his plans. As a tribal ruler who rose to khanship, Nurhachi had a harem of three wives and many concubines, mostly taken from the families of Juchen chieftains. He had 16 known sons, of whom one, Abahai (died 1643), succeeded him as khan, and another, Prince Dorgon (q.v.), perhaps one of the most brilliant of the early Manchu leaders, as regent directed the final conquest of China and established the Manchu dynasty in Peking in 1644. Franz H. Michael Additional reading Arthur W. Hummel (ed.), Eminent Chinese of the Ch'ing Period, 16441912, vol. 1, pp. 594599 (1944), is the most useful biography of Nurhachi, written by Fang Chao-ying, a well-known specialist in the field of history of the Manchus. It contains a detailed listing of Chinese, English, and Japanese sources on Nurhachi and his period. Franz Michael, The Origin of Manchu Rule in China (1942, reprinted 1965), analyzes in detail the role of Nurhachi in creating the Manchu state and contains a bibliography of works on Manchu history.