BANNER SYSTEM

Chinese (WadeGiles romanization) Ch'i-ping, Pinyin Qibing, the military organization used by the Manchu tribes of Manchuria (now Northeast China) to conquer and control China in the 17th century. The Banner system was developed by the Manchu leader Nurhachi (15591626), who in 1601 organized his warriors into four companies of 300 men each. The companies were distinguished by banners of different coloursyellow, red, white, and blue. In 1615 four more banners were added, using the same colours bordered in red, the red banner being bordered in white. As the Manchus increased their conquests, the size of the companies grew until each came to number 7,500 men divided into five regiments, divided, in turn, into four companies. All of Nurhachi's followers, with the exception of a few imperial princes, were organized into this Banner system, which also served an administrative function. Taxation, conscription, and registration of the population was carried out through the banner organization. The bannermen lived, farmed, and worked with their families during times of peace, and in times of war each banner contributed a certain number of fighting men. As the Manchus began to conquer their Chinese and Mongol neighbours, they organized their captives into companies modeled after the banners. In 1634 eight Mongol banners were added to the Manchu system, and in 1642 eight Chinese banners were added. The new banners, which fought alongside the old, brought to 24 the total number of banner units. With these troops, the Manchus were able to conquer China and establish the Ch'ing dynasty (16441911/12). After the establishment of the dynasty, a constabulary Army of the Green Standard was garrisoned throughout the country to quell minor disturbances; this army consisted mainly of former Ming remnants and local forces. The main Manchu force continued to be the 24 banners, which were garrisoned at the capital in Peking and in several selected strategic spots throughout the country, where they could be called quickly in the event of an emergency. In the early Ch'ing period the emperor controlled only three of the eight Manchu banners, the others being under the rule of various imperial princes. But when the emperor Yung-cheng ascended the throne in 1722, he took control of all eight banners to prevent his brothers from attempting to usurp the throne. Thereafter, the banners were the sole possession of the Ch'ing emperors and their greatest source of power. The bannermen were considered a form of nobility and were given preferential treatment in terms of annual pensions, land, and allotments of rice and cloth. Manchu bannermen were on the whole treated better than their Mongol and Chinese counterparts, but all were prohibited from participating in trade and manual labour unless they petitioned to be removed from banner status. Moreover, those who broke the law were not tried before an ordinary civil magistrate but by a special Manchu general. During the century and a half of peace following the establishment of the Ch'ing, the fighting qualities of the banner forces deteriorated, and their training was neglected. During the White Lotus Rebellion (17961804) and then again during the Taiping Rebellion (185064), the banners were unable to protect the dynasty, and the government eventually had to organize other forces. By the end of the 19th century the Banner System, with the exception of a few thousand bannermen trained in modern methods and weapons, had become totally ineffective.