PERU, FLAG OF

vertically striped red-white-red national flag; when displayed by the government, it incorporates the national coat of arms in the centre. The flag has a width-to-length ratio of 2 to 3. The first national flag of Peru was created in 1820, when Jos de San Martn arrived with his Army of the Andes from Argentina and Chile. The Peruvian flag he designed combined the colours red and white, said to have been chosen because San Martn saw a flock of flamingos take wing at his arrival. The form of the flag was unusual-a diagonal division forming two white and two red triangles with a coat of arms in the centre. When local independence partisans established themselves, another flag was adopted on March 15, 1822. The resemblance of this flag (equal red-white-red horizontal stripes with a red sun, the traditional emblem of the Inca empire, in the centre) to that of Spain caused confusion, and it was soon altered (May 31) to a flag with vertical stripes, but the sun emblem remained in the centre. On February 25, 1825, the design now in use was established. The red-white-red vertical stripes from the previous flag were retained, but the sun was replaced by a new coat of arms. Its shield is framed by one wreath (of palm and laurel branches) and surmounted by another. The shield is divided into three parts with figures symbolic of national pride and wealth. The vicua, a free-roaming camelid closely related to the llama and alpaca, is represented in the first quartering; in addition to representing the riches of Peruvian fauna, it stands for freedom, national pride, and heroism. The second quartering has a cinchona tree, the bark of which is used to make quinine. Finally, the bottom half of the shield displays a cornucopia from which spill gold and silver coins, symbolic of the nation's mineral wealth. In addition, the white stripe of the flag is said to represent purity, and the red recalls the blood of patriots. As in a number of other countries, the civil flag flown by private citizens displays only the stripes, the coat of arms being reserved for flags serving official (i.e., government) purposes. Whitney Smith History Humans have probably lived in Peru for more than 13,000 years. Beginning about 1250 BC, several advanced cultures, such as the Chavn, Chim, Nazca, and Tiahuanaco, developed in different parts of Peru; however, the area was not unified politically until AD 1438, when the Inca set out from their base in Cuzco on a career of conquest that, during the next 50 years, brought under their control the area of present-day Peru, Bolivia, northern Argentina, Chile, and Ecuador. Within this area, the Inca established a totalitarian state that enabled the tribal ruler and a small minority of nobles to dominate an inert population. Robert N. Burr Thomas M. Davies, Jr. The Inca Like the Aztec, the Inca came late upon the historical scene; even their legends do not predate AD 1200, with the first emperor. For, like Old World peoples, and unlike other aboriginal Americans, the Inca recounted their history by kingly reigns. Most of the accounts agree on 13 emperors (see Pre-Columbian Civilizations: The Inca). The first seven emperors were legendary, local, and of slight importance; their traditions are full of impossible or improbable events, especially those of the quasi-mythological founder, Manco Capac. In this period the Inca were a small tribe, one of many, whose domain did not extend many miles around their capital, Cuzco. They were almost constantly at war with neighbouring tribes. The incredibly rapid expansion of the Inca Empire began with Viracocha's son Pachacuti, one of the great conquerors, and one of the great men, in the history of the Americas. Also with his accession in 1438 reliable history began, almost all the chroniclers being in practical agreement. Pachacuti was called by the British geographer-historian Sir Clements Markham "the greatest man that the aboriginal race of America has produced." He and his son Topa Inca may be aptly compared to Philip and Alexander of Macedon. Pachacuti was evidently a great civic planner as well; tradition ascribes to him the city plan of Cuzco as well as the erection of many of the massive masonry buildings that still awe visitors to this ancient capital. The sudden great expansion of the Inca Empire was one of the most extraordinary events of history. It covered a little less than a century, from the accession of Pachacuti in 1438 to the conquest by Francisco Pizarro in 1532, and most of it was apparently accomplished by Pachacuti and Topa Inca in the 30 years between 1463 and 1493. At its maximum the empire extended from the present Colombia-Ecuador border to central Chile, a coastal distance of more than 2,500 miles, encompassing approximately 380,000 square miles, about equal in area to France, Belgium, The Netherlands, Luxembourg, Switzerland, and Italy combined. First the Aymara-speaking rivals in the region of Lake Titicaca, the Colla and Lupaca, were defeated, and then the Chanca to the west; the latter attacked and nearly captured Cuzco. After that there was little effective resistance. First the peoples to the north were subjugated as far as Quito, Ecuador, including the powerful and cultured "kingdom" of Chim on the northern coast of Peru. Topa Inca then took over his father's role and turned southward, conquering all of northern Chile as far as the Maule River, the southernmost limit of the empire. His son, Huayna Capac, continued conquests in Ecuador to the Ancasmayo River, the present border between Ecuador and Colombia. J. Alden Mason Thomas M. Davies, Jr. The economy Peru is a developing country whose economy has long been dependent upon the export of raw materials to the more developed nations of the Northern Hemisphere. It is one of the world's leading fishing countries and ranks among the largest producers of bismuth, silver, and copper. In recent decades, the country has struggled to modernize its economy by developing nontraditional export industries as well as the manufacture of consumer items to meet local needs. Serious economic problems persist, however, in several areas. A shortage of investment capital is paralleled by a loss of university-trained technicians to offers of higher salaries abroad. Extensive destruction of transportation and agricultural systems occurs periodically from earthquakes, landslides, and other natural disasters. The limited agricultural areas do not meet the needs of the rapidly expanding population, resulting in continually rising imports of foodstuffs and difficult attempts to alter the nation's farming and eating habits. To remedy these and other economic deficiencies the government nationalized the petroleum and other industries in the late 1960s and early 1970s and made extensive efforts at agrarian reform. Nationalization, however, created additional economic problems, including massive government debt and a large trade deficit. This caused successive Peruvian governments to reassess the role of the state in the economy and to reopen some economic sectors to private entrepreneurs. Resources Minerals and mining Peru has a wealth of mineral resources. Copper, iron, lead, zinc, bismuth, phosphates, and manganese exist in great quantities of high-yield ores. Gold and silver are found extensively, as are other rare metals, and petroleum fields are located along the far north coast. Oil exploration in the eastern tropical forests indicates substantial reserves. In spite of this potential mineral wealth, exploitation has lagged for a number of reasons, including diminished foreign investment, world price fluctuations, lack of transportation facilities, a scarcity of processing plants, and the depletion of deposits. Difficulties of geography have also hindered development, because some of the most promising resources are located at elevations above 12,000 feet or in the Amazonian forests. The land Relief Peru is traditionally described in terms of three broad, longitudinal regions: the arid Costa on the west; the rugged Sierra, or Andes, system in the centre; and the wet and forested Montaa of the tropical Amazon Basin on the east. The people Pre-Hispanic groups Throughout the pre-Hispanic period, the peoples of Peru were largely isolated from one another by the rugged topography of the country. At least three times, however, a unifying culture spread across the Andes. Beginning c. 1000 BC, the Chavn culture permeated the region, emanating possibly from the northern ceremonial site of Chavn de Huntar. After AD 600, the Huari civilization, based at a site of the same name near modern Ayacucho, dominated most of the central Andean region. Finally, the Inca Empire developed, eventually to control all of the territory from northern Ecuador to central Chile. The Inca spread their language, Quechua, across the highlands and along the coast, although some groups near Lake Titicaca spoke Aymara at the time of the Spanish conquest. Quechua and Aymara are still prevalent and have official usage, with Spanish, in regions where they are heavily spoken. Tropical forest areas were outside Incan influence, and the numerous languages and dialects now spoken in the Amazon region reflect the diverse linguistic heritage of the tropical forest peoples. Ethnic diversity The Spanish conquerors dominated Peruvian society, including politics, religion, and economics. They brought their European culture and transmitted their racial characteristics, Spanish language, and Roman Catholic religion to their descendants. The Spaniards introduced a few African slaves, but their number did not become significant. Following independence and the prohibition of slavery, Chinese immigrants were imported as farm labourers, and new groups of Spaniards, northern Europeans, and Japanese were among other arrivals. These diverse racial and ethnic groups have tended to intermarry and produce a mix of racial types, which in modern Peru constitute a complex racial mosaic. Differences in life-styles and attitudes are pronounced. Peruvians of Spanish descent and the mestizos (racially mixed people) live mainly along the coast and control most of the nation's wealth. Typically, a small group of white people hold the main power in government and industry. Mestizo culture is a blend of Indian and European ways known as criollo. The Spanish-speaking mestizos make up the middle class of Peruvian society. They hold managerial, administrative, and professional jobs, but some are also small landowners and labourers. The Indians of the Sierra, who make up about one-third of the population, live in extreme poverty in a harsh environment; they remain both indifferent to, and outside of, the mainstream affairs of the country. Land reforms have brought some improvement, but many highland Indians shepherd llama herds and work tiny plots of land to eke out a living. Like their Inca ancestors, the overwhelming number of Indians read neither their own nor another language. The lowland Indians of the Montaa occupy a social position similar to that of the highland Indians.