RAFINESQUE, CONSTANTINE SAMUEL

born Oct. 22, 1783, Galata, Tur. died Sept. 18, 1840, Philadelphia, Pa., U.S. naturalist, traveler, and writer who made major and controversial contributions to botany and ichthyology. Educated in Europe by private tutors, Rafinesque learned languages, read widely, and became deeply interested in natural history. Following a journey to the United States from 1802 to 1805, he lived as an exporter in Sicily, studying the natural history of plants and fish, until 1815. He then returned to the United States. In 1818 he was appointed professor at Transylvania University, Lexington, Ky., where he soon established a reputation as a brilliant teacher, and in 1825 he founded a botanical garden. The following year he moved to Philadelphia, where he lectured at the Franklin Institute and continued his travels and field trips at every opportunity. A remarkable student of natural history, Rafinesque believed that each variety of a species is a deviant, which, through reproduction, may become a permanent species; thus, he anticipated, to some extent, part of Charles Darwin's theory of evolution. He further showed his independent judgment by advocating in the United States the natural method of classifying plants, developed by Antoine Laurent de Jussieu, which differed markedly from the descriptive sexual system advanced by Carolus Linnaeus. Although Rafinesque's scientific abilities were recognized in his lifetime, he was also severely criticized for sometimes doing careless work and for his tendency to establish new genera and species. Throughout his life he traveled extensively, collected specimens wherever he went, and wrote and published constantly. He authored more than 950 publications on natural history, banking, economics, the Bible, and verse.