REVELATION

in religion, disclosure of divine or sacred reality or purpose to man. Revelation in this sense is an essential aspect of all religions, although the specific forms it takes in particular traditions vary widely. The forms of revelation can generally be portrayed as lying somewhere along a spectrum between two contrasting types. On the one hand, in religious traditions that posit a high degree of conformity between temporal and transcendent reality, the cosmos itself is viewed as the primary medium through which the transcendent is disclosed. In religions of this general type, revealed reality is usually conceived of as more or less nonpersonal. Revelation in this context may be characterized as cosmic. On the other hand, in traditions emphasizing the discontinuity between the profane realm and the sacred, revelation occurs as historical event, signifying the transmission of divine will through a human receiver. Such revelation, in which the divine is perceived as a personal entity, is generally termed prophetic. A notable example of the first type is the inspired poetry of the ancient Indian Vedas, which portray the natural world as a system of interconnecting powers that ultimately express the single underlying divine power, Brahman. Buddhist enlightenment and many of the forms of hierophany, or manifestations of the sacred, that characterize the archaic religions described by the religious historian Mircea Eliade also constitute cosmic revelation. The religion of ancient Israel, by contrast, was founded on revelation of the prophetic type, wherein the prophet bears personal witness to the acts and will of a sovereign deity standing in distinction from the world as its creator and judge. On the basis of this tradition, all of Judaic and subsequent Christian biblical literature is regarded as, to a greater or lesser extent, revealed. Oracular pronouncements and the teachings of Zoroaster and Muhammad are other examples of prophetic revelation. Such a typology is useful for indicating the degree of diversity to be found among world religions, but it can also lead to misunderstanding if applied as a norm rather than as a heuristic device. Although the Vedas, for example, were cited above as an example of cosmic revelation, the texts also contain elements of prophetic disclosure, namely a discourse that does not merely describe the cosmos but enjoins transformative action within it. Conversely, the Scriptures of the ancient Hebrews include cosmic elements, as evinced most notably in the so-called wisdom literature. A similar contrast of types is reflected in the terms general and special revelation, roughly equivalent to the cosmic and prophetic, respectively. in religion, the disclosure of divine or sacred reality or purpose to mankind. In the religious view, such disclosure may come through mystical insights, historical events, or spiritual experiences that transform the lives of individuals and groups. Additional reading General works R.C. Zaehner, At Sundry Times (1958), a sympathetic approach by an accomplished scholar who finds anticipations of Christian revelation not only in Judaism but also in Hinduism, Buddhism, and Zoroastrianism; J.H. Walgrave, Un salut aux dimensions du monde, trans. from the Dutch (1970), an apologetically oriented work that attempts to bring out the distinctive qualities of the Christian view of revelation in comparison with Buddhism, Hinduism, and Islam. Primitive religion Mircea Eliade, Trait d'histoire des religions (1948; Eng. trans., Patterns in Comparative Religion, 1958), a discussion of hierophanies, myths, and symbols as pertinent to the theme of revelation; G. van der Leeuw, Phnomenologie der Religion (1933; Eng. trans., Religion in Essence and Manifestation, 2 vol., 1963), a phenomenological approach influenced by Rudolf Otto and others. Christianity A.R. Dulles, Revelation Theology: A History (1969), a survey of Catholic and Protestant views; J. Baillie, The Idea of Revelation in Recent Thought (1956), a sketch of trends in 20th-century Protestant theology; Carl F. Henry, God, Revelation and Authority, 6 vol. (197683), an evangelical's argument for the infallibility of biblical revelation. Islam A.J. Arberry, Revelation and Reason in Islam (1957), a concise and learned treatment of the medieval controversies; K. Cragg, The Call of the Minaret, pt. 2, pp. 33171 (1956), a very objective presentation of Muslim faith and piety, including some discussion of the doctrine of revelation. Hinduism K.S. Murty, Revelation and Reason in Advaita Vedanta (1959), an exposition and evaluation of Sankara's position in the light of modern Western philosophy; R.C. Zaehner, Hindu and Muslim Mysticism (1960), on the love relationship to God in Bhakti and Sufism. Buddhism W.L. King, Buddhism and Christianity: Some Bridges of Understanding (1962), an objective comparison between Christianity and Theravada Buddhism, with a good discussion of the revelatory role of the Buddha. Judaism A.J. Heschel, God in Search of Man, pt. 2, pp. 167278 (1956), a presentation of modern Judaism by a prominent rabbinic scholar.