ROMANIA, FLAG OF

vertically striped blue-yellow-red national flag. Its width-to-length ratio is approximately 2 to 3. In 1834 the Ottoman government recognized local flags for use in Moldavia and Walachia, two principalities that later joined to form Romania. Their local flags were based on ancient heraldic bannersblue with an ox head (Moldavia) and yellow with an eagle (Walachia). Walachia also chose a naval ensign with horizontal stripes of red, blue, and yellow, colours later selected for the Romanian national flag. Today there is no official interpretation of those colours other than these historical associations. The revolutions that swept Europe in 1848 first produced the modern Romanian tricolour, blue-yellow-red, although it had horizontal stripes and the inscription Justice in Walachian and Brotherhood in Moldavian in the centre. This flag was used only briefly, but it became the basis for the modern tricolour. Romania adopted a horizontal tricolour of red-yellow-blue on June 22, 1861, above which blue streamers flew. In the navy version the individual arms of the two territories (later their combined arms) were emblazoned. Although still subject to the Ottoman Empire, on April 23, 1867, Romania reestablished its vertical tricolour. Various changes were made in the coat of arms on the state flag in 1877 (at the time independence was declared), 1897, 1922, andunder the communist regimein 1948, 1952, and 1965. When a revolution overthrew the communists, their emblem was removed from the flag (it was literally torn from many existing flags, leaving a hole in the centre); the constitution, as modified in late December 1989, defined the Romanian tricolour simply as three vertical stripes of blue-yellow-red. The traditional (eagle) coat of arms was reestablished in 1992 but has not officially been added to the flag. Whitney Smith History history of the area from prehistoric and ancient times to the present. Antiquity The Dacians The Carpathian-Danube region in which the Romanian ethnic community evolved was settled about 2000 BC by migratory Indo-Europeans who intermingled with native Neolithic peoples to form the Thracians. When Ionians and Dorians settled on the western shore of the Black Sea in the 7th century BC, the Thracians' descendants came into contact with the Greek world. The Greek historian Herodotus, writing in the 5th century BC, called these people Getae (Getians). Together with kindred tribes, known later to the Romans as Dacians, who lived in the mountains north of the Danubian Plain and in the Transylvanian Basin, the Getae developed a distinct society and culture by the second half of the 4th century BC. The expansion of Rome into the Balkan Peninsula in the 3rd and 2nd centuries BC decisively affected the evolution of the Geto-Dacians. To oppose the Roman advance, they revived their old tribal union under the leadership of Burebista (reigned 8244 BC). From its centre in the southern Carpathians, this union stretched from the Black Sea to the Adriatic and from the Balkan Mountains to Bohemia. It posed such a threat to Rome's ascendancy in the peninsula that Julius Caesar was preparing to undertake a major campaign against the Geto-Dacians when he was assassinated in 44 BC. In the same year, Burebista was also assassinated, by disgruntled tribal chiefs who opposed his centralizing rule. His imposing tribal union disappeared with him. The final showdown between Rome and the Geto-Dacians came at the beginning of the 2nd century AD. By that time the Geto-Dacians had reconstituted a powerful state that, under their resourceful ruler, Decebalus, threatened Rome's Danubian frontier. Geto-Dacian civilization was at its height, but its flourishing economy, prosperous cities, and bustling trade throughout southeastern Europe posed as great a challenge as its army to Rome's ambitions in the region. To end the danger, the emperor Trajan mounted two campaigns between AD 101 and 106 to force Decebalus into submission. The Romans triumphed, and, with his state in ruin, Decebalus committed suicide. For more than a century and a half the Transylvanian Basin and the plain to the south constituted the Roman province of Dacia. Officials, soldiers, and merchants from all over the Roman world settled down alongside the native Dacians. Although the population was ethnically diverse, Roman administration, numerous cities, and the Latin language brought about intense Romanization and rapid integration into the empire. Dacia, in turn, supplied the empire with grain and precious metals. The constant pressure of migratory peoples on the long, exposed boundaries of Dacia led the emperor Aurelian to withdraw the Roman army and administration in 271275. The upper classes and many urban dwellers followed, but the majority of the population, who lived in the countryside and were engaged in agriculture, stayed behind. Once again, the Danube became the frontier of the empire, although written and archaeological evidence points to continued trade and to the maintenance of military bases on the north bank of the river until the 6th century. In addition, during this period there was an intensified propagation of Christianity, which had been only sporadically present in old Dacia. The fate of the Romanized, or Daco-Roman, population north of the Danube after Aurelian's withdrawal has been a subject of great controversy. Many scholars, especially Hungarians, argue that Romanization in Dacia was, in fact, modest and that the later Romanian population living north of the Carpathians was not native to the region but migrated there from south of the Danube. Other scholars, including the majority of Romanians, insist that a substantial Romanized population maintained itself continuously in old Dacia and that the ethnogenesis of the Romanian people occurred precisely there. The account that follows expands upon the latter interpretation. The economy Romania's modern economic development dates to the opening of maritime trade routes to western Europe in the early 19th century. After independence in 1878, exploitation of the cereal lands, forests, and oil fields was complemented by a policy of encouraging industry, but, in spite of considerable success, Romania still had a predominantly agrarian economy at the end of World War II. The communist regime concentrated on the expansion of industry, with priority given to the heavy industries of metallurgy, chemicals, and engineering. Industrialization was assisted by a flood of cheap labour from rural areas, where collectivization and discriminatory price-fixing meant that farmers not only lost their own holdings but secured only modest returns as farmworkers. It also benefited from close economic integration with the Soviet Union, which secured markets for manufactured goods while supplying raw materials and fuels at relatively low cost. Socialist development transformed the economy. Industry's contribution to national income rose from 35.2 percent in 1938 to 68.3 percent in 1986. Unemployment was avoided despite a substantial growth of population, and services were able to expand to meet demand. The transport system was modernized, and increasing numbers of families took vacations on the Black Sea coast and at mountain resorts. Nevertheless, incomes remained low and living conditions poor (with high housing densities and low welfare standards). Much of industry was inefficient, with overmanned factories achieving only low productivity and producing goods of inferior quality that could be sold only within the communist bloc (or in world markets at low prices that did not always reflect the actual costs of production). After large development loans were secured from Western creditors in the 1960s and '70s, dependence on foreign capital was minimized by the settlement of all foreign debts during the 1980s. This left many sectors of industry starved of investment in new technology, and the persistence of a primitive command structure left people with little capacity to innovate and take initiatives. Moreover, serious pollution problems arose, especially in the chemical industry. The postcommunist government faces a difficult transition toward a market economy. It has approached privatization cautiously, since few Romanians have significant stocks of capital to invest and many state-owned enterprises are not attractive to foreign investors. It is expected that the replacement of markets lost through the collapse of the Soviet Union will lead to a revival in production and that restructuring can then proceed gradually. In the meantime, the government must support unemployed workers and an antiquated industrial base. However, many small businesses have been created in retailing, trade, and tourism. Industry While the industrial sector was increasing its relative contribution to national income, it underwent a radical structural change. Three branches became much more important: engineering and metalworking accounted for 25.8 percent of all industrial production in 1990, compared with 13.3 percent in 1950, while electricity and fuels increased their share from 13.2 to 19 percent and chemicals from 3.1 to 9.6 percent. Two other branches, metallurgy and building materials, showed a slight relative advance. The main relative declines were in wood processing and paper, textiles and clothing, and food processing. The following review gives priority to fuels, electricity, and metallurgy. Coal-based manufacture behind a medieval castle-museum near Petrosani, southwestern Romania. The largest coal reserves are those of bituminous coal; half of Romania's bulk coal production comes from the Petrosani Depression alone. Reserves of poorer-quality lignite increasingly are being tapped to meet energy requirements. Except for the Baraolt-Vrghis Basin, which lies within the Carpathians, most deposits are found along the fringe of the mountain areas. A large lignite field in the Motru Valley (Gorj) supplies two of the largest power stations in the country, Rovinari and Turceni. Oil deposits are found in the flysch formations that run in a band along the outer rim of the Carpathians and through the Subcarpathians. Deposits in the plains, notably Videle, have been tapped since World War II. Bacau and Prahova districts have long been famous for their oil-refining industry, and they have been joined by production from Arges (Pitesti). Oil was discovered in the Romanian sector of the Black Sea in 1981. Natural gasesmainly methaneare produced in the centre of the Transylvanian Basin, and gases produced as by-products of the oil industry are becoming increasingly important. One of the greatest problems facing Romania after World War II, when the Soviet Union demanded the delivery of Romanian petroleum as war reparations, was the very limited development of power stations based on other fuels. Under a plan spanning the years 195160 and supplemented by later plans, a remarkable rise in power output took place. The foundation for this increase was a series of large power projects, each having a capacity of 200,000 to 1,000,000 kilowatts. Both thermal and hydroelectric plants were built (though the largest capacities were installed in the Motru valley lignite field mentioned above). A nuclear program was launched with Canadian assistance at Cernavoda on the lower Danube. The Romanian iron industry has particularly strong connections with Galati as well as with Calarasi, Hunedoara, and Resita (the last having a record of activity extending back to the 18th century). Smaller units exist at Braila, Cmpia Turzii (near Turda), Iasi, Otelul Rosu, Roman, and Trgoviste. The nonferrous metallurgical industry, which also dates from the Dacian-Roman period, is largely concentrated in the southwest and west, with copper, gold, and silver production still active. Aluminum production is a more recent development; alumina factories at Oradea and Tulcea supply the aluminum reduction complex at Slatina in the Olt district. Small quantities of lead, mercury, and zinc are also produced. The machine-building and metal-processing industry is the main branch of the industrial economy, accounting for nearly a third of bulk industrial production. It provides a good index of the changing priorities in the Romanian economy: before World War II it accounted for only 10 percent of the total, being exceeded in importance by food processing and even the textile and ready-made clothing industry. Contemporary centres of production are Bucharest, Brasov, Ploiesti, Cluj-Napoca, Craiova, Arad, Resita, and many others, with a considerable degree of regional specialization. There has been a strong tendency to concentrate on such modern branches as the electronics industry, as well as to widen and diversify the range of production. In contrast to metallurgy (which relies on imports of ore and coke to supplement the modest domestic resources), the timber industry can rely on domestic raw materials. The emphasis, in what is a traditional industry, has switched from production of sawn timber to finished products. A chain of modern wood industrialization combines turns out a range of products, including furniture and chipboard, which have done well in foreign markets. The building materials industry also utilizes a wide range of resources across the country; cement manufacture represents an important subbranch. The main centres are at Turda, Medgidia, Bicaz, Fieni, and Trgu Jiu. The long-established textile industry has also undergone a steady development since its radical overhaul in the 1930s. The closely connected ready-made clothing industry has undergone considerable expansion, with a heavy investment in new plants. Silkworm production retains a modest importance despite the introduction of synthetic fibres. Silk, the weaving of which was long the occupation of peasant women in the south and southwest, has lent much to the beauty of local folk costumes, especially the richly embroidered blouses and head scarves. Finally, the food industryformerly the foundation of the economyhas been all but eclipsed by the rapid development of other branches. It has, nevertheless, continued to grow in absolute terms, and processing plants are distributed throughout the country. The land Relief The relief of Romania is dominated by the Carpathian Mountains, which can be divided into the Eastern Carpathians (Carpatii Orientali), the Southern Carpathians (also known as the Transylvanian Alps and called in Romanian the Carpatii Meridionali), and the Western Carpathians (Carpatii Occidentali). The Eastern Carpathians extend from the Ukrainian frontier to the Prahova River valley and reach their maximum height in the Rodna Mountains, with Pietrosu rising to 7,556 feet (2,303 metres). They are made up of a series of parallel crests that are oriented in a more or less north-south direction. Within these mountains is a central core that is made up of hard, crystalline rocks and has a bold and rugged relief. Rivers have cut narrow gorges here (known locally as chei)in, for example, Cheile Bistritei and Bicazuluiand these offer some magnificent scenery. This portion of the Carpathians is bounded on the eastern side by a zone of softer flysch. For some 250 miles on the western fringe, the volcanic ranges Oas and Harghita, with a concentration of volcanic necks and cones, some with craters still preserved, lend character to the landscape. Sfnta Ana (St. Ana) Lakethe only crater lake in Romaniais also found here. The volcanic crescent provides rich mineral resources (notably copper, lead, and zinc) as well as the mineral-water springs on which are founded several health resorts. The Carpathian range proper is made up in large part of easily weathered limestones and conglomerates, which again provide some striking scenery. The Maramures, Giurgiu, Ciuc, and Brsei depressions further break up the mountainous relief. The Southern Carpathians, or Transylvanian Alps, lie between the Prahova River valley on the east and the structurally formed Timis and Cerna river valleys to the west. They are composed mainly of hard crystalline and volcanic rocks, which give the region the massive character that differentiates it from the other divisions of the Carpathians. The highest points in Romania are reached in the peaks of Mounts Moldoveanu (8,346 feet [2,544 metres]) and Negoiu (8,317 feet [2,535 metres]), both in the Fagaras Massif, which, together with the Bucegi, Parng, and Retezat-Godeanu massifs, forms the major subdivision of the region. The last named contains Romania's only long-established national park, which, covering more than 140,000 acres (56,000 hectares), offers spectacular mountain scenery and provides an important refuge for the chamois (Rupicapra rupicapra) and other animals. Ancient erosion platforms, another distinguishing feature of the area, have been utilized as pastures since the dawn of European history. Communication is possible through the high passes of Bran, Novaci-Sugag, and Vlcan, at altitudes of up to 7,400 feet, but the scenic Olt, Jiu, and Danube river valleys carry the main roads and railways through the mountains. At the Iron Gate (Portile de Fier) on the Danube, a joint Romanian-Yugoslav navigation and power project has harnessed the fast-flowing waters of the gorge; its power station has a capacity exceeding two million kilowatts, and navigation facilities have been greatly improved. Finally, as in the Eastern Carpathians, there are important lowland depressions within the mountains (notably Brezoi, Hateg, and Petrosani), and agriculture and industry are concentrated in them. The Western Carpathians extend for about 220 miles between the Danube and Somes rivers. Unlike the other divisions of the Carpathians, these do not form a continuous range but rather a cluster of massifs around a north-south axis. Separating the massifs is a series of deeply penetrating structural depressions. Historically, these depressions have functioned as easily defended gates, as is reflected in their names: the Iron Gate of Transylvania (at Bistra); the Eastern Gate, or Poarta Orientala (at Timis-Cerna); and, most famous, the Iron Gate on the Danube. Among the massifs themselves, the Banat and Poiana Ruscai mountains contain a rich variety of mineral resources and are the site of two of the country's three largest metallurgical complexes, at Resita and Hunedoara. The marble of Ruschita is well known. To the north lie the Apuseni Mountains, centred on the Bihor Massif, from which emerge fingerlike protrusions of lower relief. On the east the Bihor Mountains merge into the limestone tableland of Cetatile Ponorului, where the erosive action of water along joints in the rocks has created a fine example of the rugged karst type of scenery. To the west lie the parallel mountain ranges of Zarand, Codru-Moma, and Padurea Craiului; on the south, along the Mures River, the Metaliferi and Trascau mountains contain a great variety of metallic and other ores, with traces of ancient Roman mine workings still visible. The Western Carpathians generally are less forested than other parts of the range, and human settlement reaches to the highest altitudes. The population maintains many traditional features in architecture, costumes, and social mores, and the old market centres, or nedei, are still important. Mining, livestock raising, and agriculture are the main economic activities, the last named being characterized by terrace cultivation on the mountain slopes, a survival from Roman times. The great arc of the Carpathians is accompanied by an outer fringe of rolling terrain known as the Subcarpathians and extending from the Moldova River in the north to the Motru River in the southwest. It is from 2 to 19 miles wide and reaches heights ranging between 1,300 and 3,300 feet (400 and 1,000 metres). The topography and the milder climate of this region favour vegetation (including such Mediterranean elements as the edible chestnut) and aid agriculture; the region specializes in cereals and fruits, and its winesnotably those of Odobesti and the Calugareasca Valleyhave a European reputation. The area is densely populated, and there are serious problems of economic development in remoter areas where there is little scope for further agricultural expansion. Tablelands are another important element in the physical geography of Romania. The largest is in Transylvania, with large deposits of methane gas and salt, first exploited for a chemical industry in the 1930s. The salt lakes have given rise to the health resorts of Ocna Sibiului and Sovata. The region as a whole is well populated, with a good transport system. A belt of towns has grown up on the margins, and these often parallel another outer fringe of towns commanding the main trans-Carpathian passes. Examples of such double towns are Suceava and Bistrita; Fagaras and Cmpulung; Sibiu and Rmnicu Vlcea; Alba Iulia and Arad; and Cluj Napoca and Oradea. In the east, between the outer fringe of the Subcarpathians and the Prut River, lies the Moldavian Plateau, with an average height of 1,600 to 2,000 feet. In contrast to Transylvania, which experienced considerable urban development during the Dacian and Roman periods, Moldavia did not begin to develop towns until the Middle Ages, when the old Moldavian capitals of Iasi and Suceava had close commercial connections with the towns of Transylvania and derived benefit from trade passing between the Baltic and Black Sea ports. Finally, the Dobruja (Dobrogea) tableland, an ancient, eroded rock mass in the southeast, has an average altitude of 820 feet and reaches a maximum of 1,532 feet (467 metres) in the Pricopan Hills. Plains cover a third of Romania, reaching their fullest development in the south and west. Their economic importance has increased greatly since the early 19th century. In the southern part of Romania is the Walachian Plain, which can be divided into the Romanian Plain to the east of the Olt River and the Oltenian Plateau to the west. The whole region is covered by deposits of loess, on which rich, black chernozem soils have developed, providing a strong base for agriculture. The Danube floodplain is important economically, and along the entire stretch of the river, from Calafat in the west to Galati in the east, former marshlands have been diked and drained to increase food production. Willow and poplar woods border the river, which is important for fishing but much more so for commerce. Ten river port towns (including DrobetaTurnu Severin, Turnu Magurele, Giurgiu, Braila, and Galati) complement the rural settlements. There are good rail connections with the main lines, including the two that cross the Danube, at Cernavoda (linking Bucharest with the Black Sea port of Constanta) and Giurgiu (connecting Romania with Bulgaria). On the northern edge of the Dobruja region, adjoining the Moldavian Plateau, the great, swampy triangle of the Danube delta is a unique physiographic region covering some 1,950 square miles, of which 1,750 square miles are in Romania. The delta occupies the site of an ancient bay, which in prehistoric times became wholly or partially isolated from the sea by the Letea sandbanks. The delta contributes about half of Romania's fish production from home waters, fishing off the Danube mouth contributing 90 percent of the sturgeon catch (and subsequent caviar production) as well as 80 percent of the Danube herring catch. The plant and animal life of the delta region is unique in Europe, with many rare species. The area is also a stopping place for migratory birds. A great number of birds, including pelicans, swans, wild geese, ibis, and flamingos, are protected by law, as are wild pigs and lynx. Indeed, the whole of the delta has been designated a biosphere reserve, to be managed with conservation as the priority. It is of great interest not only to scientists and conservationists but also to a growing number of tourists from other countries. Two dozen or more settlements are scattered over the region, but many are exposed to serious flood risks. Sulina and Tulcea are the major ports. The Black Sea coastal strip has its own special environment, including a temperate climate with continental aspects and good sand beaches. Lakesamong which Tasaul, Siutghiol, Agigea, Techirghiol, and Mangalia are the most significantfurther enhance the attractions of the region. Several of them contain deposits of mud and sulfurous hot springs believed to have therapeutic properties. The development of recreational facilities dates from the turn of the 20th century, and a large number of health and tourist centres have sprung up since World War II. The towns of Navodari, Mamaia, and Eforie are relatively new creations, while the older settlements of Mangalia and Techirghiol have undergone extensive redevelopment. Climate Romania's geographic situation in the southeastern portion of the European continent gives it a climate that is transitional between temperate regions and the harsher extremes of the continental interior. In the centre and west, humid Atlantic climatic characteristics prevail; in the southeast the continental influences of the East European Plain make themselves felt; and in the extreme southeast there are even milder sub-Mediterranean influences. This overall pattern, however, is substantially modified by relief, and there are many examples of climatic zones induced by altitudinal changes. The average annual temperature is 52 F (11 C) in the south and 45 F (7 C) in the north, although, as noted, there is much variation according to altitude and related factors. Extreme temperatures range from 111 F (44 C) in the Baragan region to -36 F (-38 C) in the Brasov Depression. Average annual rainfall amounts to 26 inches (660 millimetres), but in the Carpathians it reaches about 55 inches, and in the Dobruja it is only about 16 inches. Humid winds from the northwest are most common, but often the drier winds from the northeast are strongest. A hot southwesterly wind, the austru, blows over western Romania, particularly in summer. In winter, cold and dense air masses encircle the eastern portions of the nation, with the cold northeasterly known as the crivat blowing in from the East European Plain, while oceanic air masses from the Azores, in the west, bring rain and mitigate the severity of the cold. The people Ethnic composition Historical and archaeological evidence and linguistic survivals seem to confirm that the present territory of Romania had a fully developed society, with a high degree of economic, cultural, and even political development, long before the Roman armies crossed the Danube into what became known as the province of Dacia. Roman influence was profound and created a civilization that managed to maintain its identity during the great folk migrations that followed the collapse of the empire. The first mention of Walachs (Volokhs, Vlachs), the name given to the Romanian people by their neighbours, appears in the 9th century. During the medieval period there appeared two independent Romanian feudal states, with mountain crests marking a political frontier: their conventional names are Walachia (called in Romania Tara Romneasca, literally Romanian Land) and Moldavia (Romanian: Moldova), both on the southern and eastern slopes of the Carpathians. Initially, the core areas of these states were centred in the foothills of the Carpathians; only later, as the Romanian lands on the plains were gradually consolidated, were the major settlements transferred from the mountains, first to Trgoviste and Suceava and later to Bucharest and Iasi. Transylvania was affected during the Middle Ages by colonization by Hungarian-speaking Szeklers and German-speaking Saxons. More German speakers, known as Swabians, arrived in the Banat in the 18th century along with various Slav groups, mainly Serbs. Meanwhile, Turkish rule left an ethnic legacy of Turks and Tatars along the lower Danube, and Gypsies settled in all parts of the country. Jews from Poland and Russia arrived during the first half of the 19th century. Minority ethnic groups compose about one-tenth of the population. The largest group is the Hungarians, followed by the Gypsies, the Germans, and the Ukrainians. Of the larger minority groups listed in the 1977 census (i.e., those constituting more than 1.0 percent of the population), only the Gypsies have increased their share of the population; by contrast, the number of German speakers has fallen drastically, mainly through emigration. Linguistic composition Romanian, the official language of the country, is a Romance language and is spoken by most of the people. Its Latin origin is evident in the grammar and syntax, but Turkish, Albanian, Hungarian, and German influence is apparent in Romanian vocabulary.