SEXUAL BEHAVIOUR, HUMAN

any activitysolitary, between two persons, or in a groupthat induces sexual arousal. There are two major determinants of human sexual behaviour: the inherited sexual response patterns that have evolved as a means of ensuring reproduction and that are a part of each individual's genetic inheritance, and the degree of restraint or other types of influence exerted on the individual by society in the expression of his sexuality. The objective here is to describe and explain both sets of factors and their interaction. It should be noted that taboos in Western culture and the immaturity of the social sciences for a long time impeded research concerning human sexual behaviour, so that by the early 20th century scientific knowledge was largely restricted to individual case histories that had been studied by such European writers as Sigmund Freud, Havelock Ellis, and Richard, freiherr von Krafft-Ebing. By the 1920s, however, the foundations had been laid for the more extensive statistical studies that were conducted before World War II in the United States. Of the two major organizations for sex study, one, the Institut fr Sexualwissenschaft in Berlin (established in 1897), was destroyed by the Nazis in 1933. The other, the Institute for Sex Research (later renamed Kinsey Institute for Research in Sex, Gender, and Reproduction), begun in 1938 by the American sexologist Alfred Charles Kinsey at Indiana University in Bloomington, undertook the study of human sexual behaviour. Much of the following discussion rests on the findings of the Institute for Sex Research, which comprise the most comprehensive data available. The only other country for which comprehensive data exist is Sweden. Additional reading General information may be found in Benjamin B. Wolman and John Money (eds.), Handbook of Human Sexuality (1980, reissued 1993); James Leslie McCary and Stephen P. McCary, McCary's Human Sexuality, 4th ed. (1982); Zira DeFries, Richard C. Friedman, and Ruth Corn (eds.), Sexuality: New Perspectives (1985), a compilation of recent interdisciplinary research; Herant A. Katchadourian, Fundamentals of Human Sexuality, 5th ed. (1989); June M. Reinisch and Ruth Beasley, The Kinsey Institute New Report on Sex: What You Must Know to Be Sexually Literate (1990), a summary of current thinking in sex research; William H. Masters, Virginia E. Johnson, and Robert C. Kolodny, Human Sexuality, 4th ed. (1992); and Janet Shibley Hyde, Understanding Human Sexuality, 5th ed. (1994). A popular treatment of various aspects of sex is found in Stefan Bechtel et al., The Practical Encyclopedia of Sex and Health (also published as The Sex Encyclopedia, 1993). Reference works on human sexuality include Robert T. Francoeur, Timothy Perper, and Norman A. Scherzer (eds.), A Descriptive Dictionary and Atlas of Sexology (1991); Michael A. Carrera, The Language of Sex: An A to Z Guide (1992); and two annotated bibliographies, Mervyn L. Mason, Human Sexuality: A Bibliography and Critical Evaluation of Recent Texts (1983); and Suzanne G. Frayser and Thomas J. Whitby, Studies in Human Sexuality: A Selected Guide (1987).The history of the study of human sexuality is chronicled in Paul Robinson, The Modernization of Sex: Havelock Ellis, Alfred Kinsey, William Masters, and Virginia Johnson (1976); Vern L. Bullough, Sexual Variance in Society and History (1976); Jeffrey Weeks, Sexuality and Its Discontents: Meanings, Myths & Modern Sexualities (1985), and Sex, Politics, and Society: The Regulation of Sexuality Since 1800, 2nd ed. (1989), the latter focusing on Great Britain; Pat Caplan (ed.), The Cultural Construction of Sexuality (1987); John D'Emilio and Estelle B. Freedman, Intimate Matters: A History of Sexuality in America (1988); Sander L. Gilman, Sexuality: An Illustrated History: Representing the Sexual in Medicine and Culture from the Middle Ages to the Age of AIDS (1989); and Janice M. Irvine, Disorders of Desire: Sex and Gender in Modern American Sexology (1990).Significant studies of specifically female or male sexuality in the United States are Alfred C. Kinsey, Wardell B. Pomeroy, and Clyde E. Martin, Sexual Behavior in the Human Male (1948); Alfred C. Kinsey et al., Sexual Behavior in the Human Female (1953, reissued 1973); and Shere Hite, The Hite Report: A Nationwide Study on Female Sexuality, new rev. ed. (1981), and The Hite Report on Male Sexuality (1981), although criticism has been leveled at the studies' methodology.Anthropological overviews of sex are given in Donald S. Marshall and Robert C. Suggs (eds.), Human Sexual Behavior: Variations in the Ethnographic Spectrum (1971); George P. Murdock, Social Structure (1949, reissued 1965); and Clellan S. Ford and Frank A. Beach, Patterns of Sexual Behavior (1951, reprinted 1980), which compares sexual behaviour patterns of nearly 200 human cultural groups worldwide and of a large number of related mammals.Sexual physiology is comprehensively treated in William H. Masters and Virginia E. Johnson, Human Sexual Response (1966, reissued 1986); Loretta P. Higgins and Joellen W. Hawkins, Human Sexuality Across the Life Span (1984), a text for nursing practice; and Simon LeVay, The Sexual Brain (1993), which includes a discussion of the author's report of the size variation of a part of the hypothalamus with respect to sexual orientation among men. William H. Masters and Virginia E. Johnson, Human Sexual Inadequacy (1970, reissued 1980), reports behaviour therapy treatments of sexual dysfunction. Richard Green and John Money (eds.), Transsexualism and Sex Reassignment (1969), discusses sex change. John Money, Gay, Straight, and In-Between: The Sexology of Erotic Orientation (1988), analyzes determining physiological, cultural, and personal history factors.The psychological differences between the sexes and the relationship of gender are analyzed by Robert J. Stoller, Sex and Gender, 2 vol. (196875); Eleanor Emmons Maccoby and Carol Nagy Jacklin, The Psychology of Sex Differences (1974); G. Mitchell, Human Sex Differences (1981), a primatologist's investigation; John Archer and Barbara Lloyd, Sex and Gender (1982), also published in an enlarged, revised North American edition with the same title (1985); and June M. Reinisch, Leonard A. Rosenblum, and Stephanie A. Sanders (eds.), Masculinity/Femininity: Basic Perspectives (1987). Biological data is examined by Anne Fausto-Sterling, Myths of Gender: Biological Theories About Women and Men, 2nd ed. (1992).Social and cultural aspects of human sexuality are investigated by Louis M. Epstein, Sex Laws and Customs in Judaism (1948, reissued 1968), a detailed history of Judeo-Christian attitudes toward sex; Derrick S. Bailey, Sexual Relation in Christian Thought (also published as The Man-Woman Relationship in Christian Thought, 1959); Ira L. Reiss, The Social Context of Premarital Sexual Permissiveness (1967), and Journey into Sexuality (1986), a study of the relationship between cross-cultural differences in nonsexual and sexual patterns; Robert Coles and Geoffrey Stokes, Sex and the American Teenager (1985); and Arthur S. Leonard, Sexuality and the Law: An Encyclopedia of Major Legal Cases (1993), restricted, however, to United States law.Diseases transmitted through sexual contact are described in Allan M. Brandt, No Magic Bullet: A Social History of Venereal Disease in the United States Since 1880 (1985); Charles E. Rinear, The Sexually Transmitted Diseases (1986); and L.C. Parish and Friedrich Gschnait (eds.), Sexually Transmitted Diseases: A Guide for Clinicians (1989).