SWEDEN, FLAG OF

national flag consisting of a yellow cross extending through a blue field. The flag has a width-to-length ratio of 5 to 8. In the 14th century the Folkung dynasty used a shield of blue and white wavy diagonal stripes with a gold lion superimposed. The state coat of arms of Sweden, which also dates from the 14th century, has a blue shield with three golden crowns. These symbols were probably the basis for the Swedish flags of blue and yellow recorded in later years, the earliest of which (from the late 14th century) was composed simply of horizontal stripes. Subsequent use of an off-centre Scandinavian Cross on a plain background was undoubtedly influenced by the similar white-and-red flag of Denmark, Sweden's chief rival. From the early 16th century Swedish ships were flying the flag that is today the national emblem of Sweden. A swallow-tailed version dating from the 17th century became popular for navy vessels. Following the Congress of Vienna in 1815, Norway and Sweden, although ruled by one king, were supposed to be equal kingdoms. To indicate this, a union mark was placed in the upper canton of both the Norwegian and Swedish flags. The earliest version was a white diagonal cross on red; later a diagonally divided emblem based on the Norwegian and Swedish flags was substituted. After Norwegian independence in 1905, Sweden adopted its current flag law on June 22, 1906, but Swedes celebrate June 6 as Flag Day. A swallow-tailed flag is used only by the military, whereas the rectangular version of the yellow cross on blue is displayed by both the government and private citizens. Whitney Smith History Earliest settlements The thick ice cap that covered Sweden during the last glacial period began to recede in the southern region about 14,000 years ago. About 12,000 years later the earliest hunters in the region began following migratory paths behind the retreating ice field. The stratified clay deposits that were left annually by the melting ice have been studied systematically by Swedish geologists, who have developed a dependable system of geochronology that verifies the dates of the thaw. The first traces of human life in Sweden, dating from about 9000 BC, were found at Segebro outside Malm in the extreme southern reaches of Sweden. Finds from the peat at Agerd in Skne dated to 6500 BC reveal a typical food-gathering culture with tools of flint and primitive hunting and fishing equipment, such as the bow and arrow and the fishing spear. New tribes, practicing agriculture and cattle raising, made their appearance about 2500 BC, and soon afterward a peasant culture with good continental communications was flourishing in what are now the provinces of Skne, Halland, Bohusln, and Vstergtland. The so-called Boat-Ax culture (an outlier of the European Battle-Ax cultures) arrived about 2000 BC and spread rapidly. During the Neolithic Period, southern and central Sweden displayed the aspects of a homogeneous culture, with central European trade links; in northern Sweden the hunting culture persisted throughout the Stone and Bronze ages. Settlers became familiar with copper and bronze around 1500 BC. Information about Sweden's Bronze Age has been obtained by studying rock carvings and relics of the period, as, for example, the ornate weapons of chieftains and other decorative items preserved in the earth. The early Bronze Age (c. 15001000 BC) was also characterized by strong continental trade links, notably with the Danube River basin. Stone Age burial customs (skeleton sepulture, megalithic monuments) were gradually replaced by cremation. Rock carvings suggest a sun cult and fertility rites. Upheavals on the continent, combined with Celtic expansion, seem to have interrupted (c. 500 BC) bronze imports to Scandinavia, and a striking poverty of finds characterizes the next few centuries. The climate, comparatively mild since the Neolithic Period, deteriorated, necessitating new farming methods. At this time, iron reached the north. For the early Iron Age (c. 400 BCc. AD 1) the finds are also relatively scanty, showing only sporadic contacts with the La Tne culture, but they become more abundant from the Roman Iron Age (c. AD 1400) onward. The material from this period shows that Sweden had developed a culture of its own, although naturally reflecting external influences. Trade links between the Roman Empire and Scandinavia gave Rome some knowledge of Sweden. The Germania (written AD 98) of Tacitus gives the first description of the Svear, or Suiones (Swedes), stated to be powerful in men, weapons, and fleets. Other ancient writers who mention Scandinavia are Ptolemy, Jordanes, and Procopius. The Viking Age At the beginning of this period a number of independent tribes were settled in what is now Sweden, and their districts are still partly indicated by the present divisions of the country. The Swedes were centred in Uppland, around Uppsala. Farther south the Gotr lived in the agricultural lands of stergtland and Vstergtland. The absence of historical sources makes it impossible to trace the long process by which these provinces were formed into a united and independent state. The historical events leading to unification are reflected darkly in the Anglo-Saxon epic poem Beowulfwhich gives the earliest known version of the word sveorice, svearike, sverige (Sweden)and also in the Old Norse epic Ynglingatal, contained in the Heimskringla of Snorri Sturluson. History The 18th century Charles XII had no successor. In 1718 his sister Ulrika Eleonora had to convene the Diet in order to be elected. In 1720 she abdicated in favour of her husband, Frederick of Hessen (ruled 172051). The Age of Freedom (171872) This period saw a transition from absolutism to a parliamentary form of government. The real reason for the change was the complete failure of the policy of greatness connected with the Carolingian absolutism. According to the constitutional laws of 172023, the power now rested with the estates. The estates met regularly in the Diet, which designated the council. There the king was accorded a double vote but had no right to make decisions. In the Diet, decision making took place in the Secret Committee, from which the peasants, or the fourth estate, were excluded. The public sessions of the estates in the Diet were reserved for speeches and debates. The three upper estates consisted mainly of state servants. Thus the so-called Age of Freedom until 1772 also was an age of bureaucracy. During this period a dual party system evolved; the parties were known by the nicknames Nightcaps (or Caps) and Hats. Both parties were mercantilist, but the Nightcaps were the more prudent. Up to 1738 the Nightcaps were in power. They led a most careful foreign policy so as not to provoke Russia. From 1738 to 1765 power passed to the Hats, who made treaties with France in order to obtain subsidies and support against Russia. War with Russia in 174143 led to a temporary Russian occupation of Finland and to a further loss of Finnish provinces northwest of St. Petersburg. A war with Prussia in 175762 was very expensive. The Hats attempted to make Sweden a great economic power, but their economic policy and the war costs led to inflation and financial collapse, and their regime came to an end in 1765. For some years political confusion reigned in Sweden. The Nightcaps received subsidies from Russia, and their negotiations with Prussia and Denmark intensified party struggle in Sweden. Economic chaos, territorial losses, foreign infiltration, and famine in the countryside undermined the parliamentary system. Historians have sometimes stressed these failures too strongly, however, in glorifying the past Carolingian age and the future Gustavian epoch. It has become increasingly clear that during the period the Swedish heritage of freedom was significantly shaped. A true parliamentary system gradually developed, which, although hampered by cumbersome procedures, is a notable parallel to the contemporary English system. The political changes that marked the period are especially significant because of their influence on the Swedish constitution. Despite the turmoil that prevailed, the period was notable for its social and cultural advancements. Ideas about land reform were formulated, progress in science was encouraged, and the Swedish press was initiated. Noteworthy individual achievements include the thermometer scale of Anders Celsius, the botanical classification system of Carolus Linnaeus (Carl von Linn), and the religious philosophical postulations of Emanuel Swedenborg. During the Age of Freedom, Sweden reached a level of scholarly and cultural attainment equal to that of the most advanced nations of western Europe. By the last years of this period. however, numerous problems beset the country, and Sweden was ripe for a change of government. The economy Sweden's gross national product (GNP) per capita is among the highest in the world, but so are its taxes. Most enterprises are privately owned and market-oriented, but roughly 60 percent of the gross domestic product (GDP) passes through the public sector if transfer payments, such as pensions, sick pay, and child allowances, are included. Government involvement in the distribution of national income, however, has lessened since 1983. With the value of exports amounting to 30 percent of its GDP, Sweden is highly dependent on free international trade to maintain its living standard. In 1991 Sweden attached its currency to the European Currency Unit (ECU) and applied for full membership in the European Community (EC). Sweden also has to cope with problems of competitiveness that have caused industry to invest much more abroad than at home. Most of Sweden's large industrial companies today are transnational, and some employ more people abroad than in Sweden, where production costs are high. Employment in agriculture, forestry, and fishing has declined since the mid-20th century. Employment in industry reached a peak in 1960, but the tertiary sector (including services and administration) has become the main growth area, the expanding public sector being one of its major components. Female participation in the work force is high compared to most other countries. Sweden is noted for its liberal employee benefit plans. The normal statutory work week is 40 hours, but actual work hours per employee in Swedish industry is among the lowest in Europe. The minimum amount of annual paid vacation is five weeks and two days. In addition, there are other legal grounds for paid absence. Employers pay additional fees of more than 43 percent of gross wages for statutory social benefits, including pensions. Sweden is highly unionized, workers being organized into three main groups: the Swedish Trade Union Confederation, the Confederation of Professional Employees, and the Confederation of Professional Associations. Most private sector employers belong to the Swedish Employers' Confederation. Resources Wood, metallic ores, and waterpower constitute the historical basis for Sweden's industrial economy. The country is lacking in fossil fuels and must rely on imports for its needs. Hydroelectric power is used to a high degree but provides only about 50 percent of the electric energy needed; most of the rest is derived from nuclear power. Sweden is well endowed with mineral resources. The huge state-owned iron ore deposits at Kiruna in Lappland were opened to export at the end of the 19th century. In the Boliden area of Norrland a wide range of metals, including gold, copper, lead, and zinc, are mined. The copper, silver, and iron ore deposits of central Sweden either have been largely exhausted or are unprofitable to extract. The land Sweden is traditionally divided into three regions: to the north is Norrland, the vast mountain and forest region; in central Sweden is Svealand, an expanse of lowland in the east and highland in the west; and in the south is Gtaland, which includes the Smland highlands and, at the southern extremity, the small but rich plains of Skne. In the far north, the region of Lappland overlaps Norrland and northern Finland. Relief, drainage, and soils Norrland is the largest and most sparsely populated of the regions, covering some three-fifths of the country. The region features an undulating surface of rounded hills and mountains, large lakes, and extensive river valleys. To the west lie the Scandinavian mountains, through which runs the border demarcating Sweden and Norway. This range is characterized by numerous glaciers, the southernmost of which is on Helags Mountain (Helagsfjllet), near the Norwegian border. At the region's far northern edge, north of the Arctic Circle, are Sweden's highest peaks: Mount Kebne (Kebnekaise), which is 6,926 feet (2,111 metres) high, and Mount Sarek (Sarektjkk), which rises 6,854 feet (2,089 metres), in a national park of great and lonely magnificence. The nation's chief rivers also originate in these mountains, mostly flowing southeastward with many falls and rapids and emptying into the Gulf of Bothnia or the Baltic Sea. The longest, however, is the Klar-Gta River, which rises in Norway and flows 447 miles, reaching Lake Vnern and continuing southward out of the lake's southern end to the North Sea; along its southernmost course are the famous falls of Trollhttan. The Muonio-Torne River forms the frontier with Finland, and in the south the Dal River marks the transition to Svealand. The rivers, except in the far north, where they are protected, are sources of hydroelectric power. The area is rich in ores, but above all it is an immense forestland. Agriculture is limited to the shores of Lakes Siljan and Storsjn and to the river valleys. Except for a stretch of scenic high coast, the Bothnian coastal plain is low-lying and stretches from Norrland into Svealand. Most of the fairly level surface of eastern Svealand and northern Gtaland was pressed below sea level by glaciers, leaving a landscape of fragmented bedrock, fertile clayey plains, numerous lakes, and sandy ridges. Today these are intermingled with mixed forests and farmland. Here are found Sweden's largest lakes, including Vnern, 2,156 square miles; Vttern, 738 square miles; and Mlaren, 440 square miles. The interior of southern Sweden, Smland, is a wooded upland with elevations of 980 to 1,300 feet. A region of poor and stony soils, Smland has been cultivated through the ages with some difficulty as evidenced by the enormous mounds of stone cleared from the land. More recently the area has been characterized by flourishing small factories. Sweden's landscape changes from the hills of Smland to the fertile plains of Skne, which is physiographically and economically more similar to Denmark than to the rest of Sweden. This is Sweden's oldest settled and most densely populated agricultural area. The Swedish coastline is typically rocky with hundreds of small, sometimes wooded islands. Ground by glacial ice in the same direction, they have a common rounded shape. This type of coast, known as Skrgrd, is found in both the east and west, especially around Stockholm and Gteborg. Off the southern coast in the Baltic the large, flat islands of land and Gotland are outcropping layers of sandstone and limestone. The dominant soil of Sweden is till, formed under glacial ice. Till that comes from the archaic bedrock of granites and gneisses forms a poor soil and forestry and polluted (acid) rain add to its acidification. On the other hand, small areas of clayey till from younger sedimentary limestone, scattered mainly in southern Sweden, form brown earth, providing agricultural soils of high fertility. In addition, vast areas of central Sweden are covered by heavy and fertile sea-bottom clays raised out of the sea by postglacial land uplift. One-fifth of the country, especially in rainy southwestern Sweden and the cold far north, is covered by marshland and peat. The people Ethnic and linguistic characteristics Although different groups of immigrants have influenced Swedish culture through the centuries, the population is unusually homogeneous in ethnic stock, language, and religion. It is only since World War II that notable change has occurred in the ethnic pattern. Of a population of 8.6 million in the early 1990s, some 1 million were born abroad or were the children of immigrant parents. From 1970 to the early 1990s net immigration accounted for some 70 to 80 percent of the population growth. By far, most of the immigrants have come from the neighbouring Nordic countries, with which Sweden has a common labour market. Immigration from other countries is regulated, but such regulation is relaxed under certain circumstances. For instance, many immigrants from Latin America and the Middle East were allowed entry as refugees; Yugoslavs, Turks, and Greeks were recruited by industries seeking labourers. Preservation of immigrant cultures and the teaching of native languages is supported by the state. Sweden has two minority groups of indigenous inhabitants: the Finnish-speaking people of the northeast along the Finnish border, and the Sami (Lapp) population of about 15,000 scattered throughout the northern Swedish interior. Once a hunting and fishing people, the latter group developed a reindeer-herding system that they still operate very efficiently. Presently most of the Sami in Sweden have other occupations as well. The Sami and Finnish languages belong to the Uralic language group. Swedish, the mother tongue of the vast majority of the people, belongs to the North Germanic (Scandinavian) subgroup of the Germanic languages and is closely related to the Danish, Norwegian, Icelandic, and Faeroese languages. It has been influenced at times by German, but it has also borrowed some words and syntax from French, English, and Finnish. A common standard language has been in use more than 100 years. The traditionally varying dialects of the provinces are being homogenized rapidly through the influences of education and the mass media. Religion About 90 percent of the population belong to the Evangelical Lutheran Church of Sweden, the state church, to which every newborn child with at least one adhering parent is registered. There are no restrictions on leaving the church. Since the late 1800s a number of independent churches have emerged; their members can also belong to the Evangelical Lutheran Church of Sweden. Immigration has brought a steady increase to the membership of the Roman Catholic, Greek Orthodox, and Islamic religions.