SWITZERLAND

officially Swiss Confederation, French Suisse, or Confdration Suisse, German Schweiz, or Schweizerische Eidgenossenschaft, Italian Svizzera, or Confederazione Svizzera, or Confederazione Elvetica, Romansch Svizzra, or Confederaziun Helvetica a landlocked country of central Europe, extending for about 135 miles (220 km) from north to south and for about 220 miles (350 km) at its widest extent from west to east. Switzerland is bordered on the west by France, on the north by Germany, on the east by Austria and Liechtenstein, and on the south by Italy. With more than two-fifths of its area comprising the main ranges of the Alps and with few natural resources other than waterpower, Switzerland has managed to fashion unity out of diverse races, religions, and languages; for about 700 years it has maintained the world's oldest democracy. The capital is Bern. Area 15,940 square miles (41,284 square km). Pop. (1992 est.) 6,911,000. An Alpine village near St. Moritz in the upper Engadin valley, Graubnden canton, Switzerland. officially Swiss Confederation, French Suisse or Confdration Suisse, German Schweiz or Schweizerische Eidgenossenschaft, Italian Svizzera or Confederazione Svizzera or Confederazione Elvetica, Romansch Svizzra or Confederaziun Helvetica country of central Europe, extending for about 135 miles (220 kilometres) from north to south and 220 miles (350 kilometres) at its widest extent from west to east. It is bordered on the west by France, on the north by Germany, on the east by Austria and Liechtenstein, and on the south by Italy. Landlocked amid the mountains of central Europe, Switzerland is a nation separated into three major linguistic regions: German throughout much of the northern, central, and eastern portions, French to the west, and Italian in the south. The canton of Valais has both French- and German-speakers. In addition, there is one minor linguistic group, Romansh, in the canton of Graubnden. Because of historical events the country is divided into two religions, Roman Catholic and Protestant, but, except for the Italian-speaking canton of Ticino, which is Roman Catholic, language and religion do not coincide. Despite cultural differences, a history that often pitted one region against another, and a divisive landscape that includes the Jura Mountains in the north and the rugged Alps to the south, Switzerland today is united and has achieved the highest per capita income in the industrialized world. Switzerland is a federal republic of 26 cantons, 6 of which (Appenzell Ausser-Rhoden, Appenzell Inner-Rhoden, Basel-Landschaft, Basel-Stadt, Nidwalden, and Obwalden) are traditionally referred to as demi-cantons but function as full cantons. The only canton to be added after 1815 was Jura in 1979. The capital is Bern. Switzerland is the nexus of the diverse physical and cultural geography of western Europe. Two-thirds of the frontier corresponds to the natural contours of mountain ridges and crests or is formed by lakes and rivers. Except for minor adjustments, Swiss borders have remained stable since their establishment at the Congress of Vienna in 1815, a stability from which the economy has benefited. Switzerland's small area of 15,940 square miles (41,284 square kilometres; about one-half the size of Scotland) and its modest population give little indication of the country's character or significance on the international scene. The nation's geographically destined role as guardian of Europe's natural trans-Alpine routes has been both a reason for and a basic tenet of its existencea role expressed in its traditional neutrality in time of war. Switzerland's neutrality was sanctioned by the Peace of Westphalia in 1648 and reinforced in 1815 in Vienna, in 1919 at Versailles, and in 1920, when the Council of the League of Nations acknowledged it as conditioned by a centuries-old tradition explicitly incorporated in international law. The tradition was upheld even while World War II raged around Switzerland's frontiers during 1939-1945, when the country was the only democracy in central Europe to escape Hitler's legions. Switzerland's continued existence is related not only to the will of its inhabitants but also to the exigencies of geography. With almost one-fourth of its area comprising high Alps, lakes, and barren rock, and with no seaboard and few natural resources other than waterpower, the country has managed to impose unity on people of diverse races, religions, and languages. For more than 700 years it has maintained the world's oldest and one of Europe's most effective democracies, achieving an exceptionally high standard of living. Nevertheless, in the process social and environmental problems have not been eliminated. The nation has become a major global financial centre and headquarters of more than 300 international institutions, including the International Committee of the Red Cross and the World Meteorological Organization in Geneva and the Universal Postal Union in Bern. Although the European headquarters of the United Nations occupies the old League of Nations building in Geneva, Swiss voters have rejected membership in the United Nations. Additional reading General works Overviews of all aspects of Swiss life are provided by Niklaus Fleler and Roland Gfeller-Corthsy (eds.), Die Schweiz vom Bau der Alpen bis zur Frage nach der Zukunft (1975), a complete, well-illustrated lexicon; Aubrey Diem, Switzerland: Land, People, Economy, 3rd ed. (1991), a concise text including history as well as an analysis of the major cities and regions; Jean-Bernard Racine and Claude Raffestin (eds.), Nouvelle Gographie de la Suisse et des Suisses, 2 vol. (1990), a comprehensive work; and Christopher Hughes, Switzerland (1975), a critical account.Other broad treatments of note include Ren Lebeau, La Suisse (1975), a historical and geographic analysis; J. Murray Luck (ed.), Modern Switzerland (1978); Swiss Office for the Development of Trade, Focus on Switzerland, 2nd ed., rev. and enlarged, 4 vol. (1982), a comprehensive, beautifully illustrated work that examines the country's landscape, history, institutions, cultural life, and economy; Oskar Br, Geographie der Schweiz, new ed. (1979), a well-illustrated modern text; Franois Jeanneret and Franz auf der Maur, Der grosse schweizer Atlas (1981), a large-format atlas with detailed text and colour photographs and maps that analyzes Switzerland from prehistoric times to the present; and Eduard Imhof (ed.), Atlas der Schweiz (196578), a comprehensive series of large-format detailed maps with text, relating to all aspects of the country. Jonathan Steinberg, Why Switzerland? (1976), focuses on history and politics. Geography Emil Egli, Switzerland: A Survey of Its Land and People, trans. from German (1978), provides a description of landscape, climate, settlement patterns, and economy. Swiss National Tourist Office, Switzerland and Her Glaciers: From the Ice Age to the Present (1981), gives a vivid portrayal, with detailed text and excellent colour photographs. Jaro Stvan, Les Alpes apprivoises (1991), is an illustrated analysis of the infrastructural impact on the Swiss Alpine environment. Max Ikl, Switzerland: An International Banking and Finance Center (1972; originally published in German, 1970), chronicles the history of the country's financial institutions. Kenneth D. McRae, Conflict and Compromise in Multilingual Societies, vol. 1, Switzerland (1983); and Carol L. Schmid, Conflict and Consensus in Switzerland (1981), offer historical insight into the reasons relative social and political stability exists in Switzerland. John R.G. Jenkins, Jura Separatism in Switzerland (1986), recounts the events leading up to the formation of the new canton of Jura. History Historical overviews are provided by Handbuch der schweizer Geschichte, 2 vol. (197277); Peter Drrenmatt, Schweizer Geschichte (1957, reissued in 2 vol., 1976); Edgar Bonjour, H.S. Offler, and G.R. Potter, A Short History of Switzerland (1952, reprinted 1985); Georg Threr, Free and Swiss: The Story of Switzerland (1970; originally published in German, 3rd ed., 1964); Marc-R. Sauter, Switzerland, from Earliest Times to the Roman Conquest (1976); William Martin, Switzerland: From Roman Times to the Present (1971; originally published in French, 6th ed., 1966); and Edgar Bonjour, Swiss Neutrality: Its History and Meaning, 2nd ed., trans. from German (1946). Hektor Ammann and Karl Schib (eds.), Historischen Atlas der Schweiz, 2nd ed. (1958), is an excellent atlas of Swiss history. Aubrey Diem Administration and social conditions Government The Swiss Confederation consists of some 3,000 communes, which, like the 26 cantons (including six demi-cantons, or Halbkantone, which function as full cantons), are largely autonomous; they range in size from Bagnes in Valais, with an area of 109 square miles (282 square kilometres), to Ponte Tresa in Ticino, with an area of 0.1 square mile (0.3 square kilometre). From the multiplicity of small communal republics stems a special quality and, paradoxically, a basis of the inner strength of the entire nation, for each citizen treasures and supports the freedom of the commune, a shared conviction that unites him or her with the rest of the population in a way that transcends differences of language and of party. It is the communes rather than the country that grant Swiss citizenship. The Swiss Confederation's main body of laws rests upon the Federal Constitution (modeled after that of the United States), adopted in 1848 and substantially revised in 1874; its 123 articles establish the rights and duties of the citizen and of the governing bodies. The federal government supervises external and internal security, all transportation affairs, forestry, and water conservation. It deals with foreign policy and customs, the postal, telephone, and telegraph systems, the monetary system, and the military organization, as well as with the extensive social insurance programs. It may take steps to adjust the course of the economy and provide for uniform administration of justice in the areas of criminal and civil law. The organizational units of the federation are the people and the cantons, the Federal Assembly, the Federal Council, and the Federal Supreme Court. Legislative power resides in the bicameral Federal Assembly, comprising the National Council, with 200 deputies elected by a system of proportional representation, and the Council of States, in which each canton is represented by two deputies and each demi-canton by one deputy. The administrative Federal Council is a seven-member collegial board, an organization of equals with a rotating presidency, with each councillor presiding over a federal department. Because of the vast amount of work that is required, both internally and because of increased international commitments, the persons holding these positions are under increasing pressure. Sovereign power rests with the people, who vote on proposed legislation several times a year and elect representatives every four years. The constitution was amended by national referendum in 1971 to grant women the right to vote in federal elections and to hold federal office. In 1991 the voting age in federal elections was reduced from 20 to 18 years. In the 1991 federal elections the four-party coalition that has run the federal government since the 1950sthe Radical Democratic Party, the Social Democratic Party, the Christian Democratic People's Party, and the Swiss People's Party (Centre Democratic Union)kept a comfortable majority, holding 159 of the 200 seats in the lower house, plus all of the upper house. Nevertheless, 11 rightists were elected, the largest number in 20 years, all of whom campaigned on an antiforeigner, anti-European platform. The Swiss Civil Code of 1912 has furnished a model for the administration of justice in many countries, and parts have been adopted verbatim. The difficult task of creating and preserving a uniform judicial system within so diverse a national structure has produced a number of great jurists and international law experts in Switzerland. Each canton elects and maintains its own magistracy for ordinary civil and criminal trials. Supreme judicial power is vested in the Federal Supreme Court, the seat of which is in Lausanne (Vaud canton). Capital punishment was abolished by the unified federal penal code of 1937, except under circumstances of martial law, general mobilization, or war. Police and armed forces Police authority is generally exercised by the cantons, but larger cities also maintain municipal police forces. A small federal police corps enforces special federal laws concerning such crimes as treason and forgery (mainly in collaboration with cantonal police). In 1989 the Swiss were shocked when it was discovered that the federal security police had secret files containing dossiers on some 200,000 Swiss citizens and foreign residents whose political views were considered to be suspect. In accordance with confederation neutrality, which dates back to the 16th century and in 1815 became international law, the army serves solely to preserve the independence of the country. Defense is based on a system of universal conscription under which every Swiss male is liable for military duty between the ages of 20 and 50 years or, for officers, 20 and 55 years. The training of recruits is followed by eight annual three-week refresher courses and later by shorter supplementary courses. Swiss women may serve as volunteers in the women's auxiliary force. The Swiss is the only soldier in the world who keeps his equipment, including arms and ammunition, at home and who performs his obligatory gunnery duty each year in civilian clothes, a manifestation of the extraordinary degree of trust between citizen and government. In November 1989 a national referendum saw more than one-third of the electorate, mainly those between the ages of 20 and 30, and a majority in the cantons of Jura and Geneva, vote to do away with the Swiss army. This came as a shock to the establishment of army officers, who also are parliament members and executives in the country's banks and multinational corporations. Cultural life Alphorns played by men in traditional dress at a festival in the town of Mannlichen, Switzerland. Although Switzerland may not rank foremost among the centres of European culture, the country nevertheless can boast of an impressive list of contributors to the arts and sciences. On the one hand, because of limited opportunities at home, some of Switzerland's creative minds have chosen to live elsewhere. This has been especially true of architects. On the other hand, Switzerland's traditional neutrality and its laws of political asylum have made the country a magnet for many creative persons during times of unrest or war in Europe. The mid-19th century was such a period, as were the 1930s and '40s, when the rise of fascism caused a number of German, Austrian, and Italian writers such as Thomas Mann, Stefan George, and Ignazio Silone to seek harbour in Switzerland. If a Swiss culture can be spoken of in its broader implications beyond the arts, distinctive French, Italian, and German cultural circles must be recognized, as well as a robust Rhaeto-Romanic culture. In a real sense, the four parts of the country represent a definite resistance to leveling or homogenizing influences, political or cultural. There are many newspapers reflecting regional interests, and some, such as the Tribune de Genve and the Neue Zrcher Zeitung, are respected for their international coverage. Much of modern cultural life has been influenced by television. The three networks, French, German, and Italian, while portraying their respective cultures, include many programs from France, Germany, and Italy. French-language television also includes shows from Canada and Belgium, whereas the German network presents programs from Austria. All of the country is influenced by American movies and television programs. Cable television, reflecting the Europeanization of Switzerland, has brought a wide variety of additional programs to the large urban centres. Switzerland's geographic centrality in Europe can be seen reflected in the option of Helvetia mediatrix (Switzerland the mediator). Henri Dunant (18281910), the Swiss founder of the International Red Cross, lives on in the continued sense of a distinct mission of cultural union that is shared by many Swiss. This mission is revealed not only in the foreign assistance programs oriented toward self-help that are carried out in several small and developing nations but also in the unusual number of literary translators within the country. Folk arts Folk art in Switzerland is expressed in music, poetry (usually song), dance, wood carving, and embroidery. In the cattle-breeding northern areas, there are many primitive forms of song and music, involving, for instance, yodeling, a way of singing marked by rapid switching of the voice to falsetto. There are also trumpetlike instruments made of wood and bark, the perfect form of which is the alphorn, or alpenhorn. Folk music in mainly pastoral areas has wide-ranging, floating melodies, whereas in the crop-growing regions of the inner and southern Alps, more songlike melodies of limited range are common. The most frequent themes are love and longing for the homeland, as well as historical, patriotic, pastoral, and hunting themes. The vitality of the Alpine folk culture can also be seen in very expressive dances, such as the Schuhplattler, with its rapid sequence of jumping and hopping movements, and in small musical ensembles such as the fife and drum presentations in Valais. Wood carving consists partly of chip carving for the decoration of everyday objects, as, for example, milking stools, neckbands for bells, wooden spoons, and distaffs, and partly of figure carving, especially of Nativity figures. Decoration of house facades with sayings usually of a religious nature is widespread in Protestant Alpine areas (in Berner Oberland and parts of Graubnden), but it can also be found to a lesser extent in Roman Catholic regions, such as German-speaking upper Valais. Embroidery, as a form of folk art, can be seen especially at prominent points of traditional women's clothing, such as cuffs, stomachers, hats, and scarves. It has become a home industry in parts of northeastern and eastern Switzerland.