THEATRE

also spelled theater in architecture, a building or space in which a performance may be given before an audience. The word is from the Greek theatron, a place of seeing. A theatre usually has a stage area where the performance itself takes place. Since ancient times the evolving design of theatres has been determined largely by the spectators' physical requirements for seeing and hearing the performers and by the changing nature of the activity presented. also spelled theater in dramatic arts, an art concerned almost exclusively with live performances in which the action is precisely planned to create a coherent and significant sense of drama. The art of theatre is treated in a number of articles. For technical aspects, see theatrical production. For historical treatment of Western theatre, see theatre, history of. For a general survey of dramatic literature and its tragic and comic forms, see dramatic literature. Western dramatic literature is also treated in the articles on the literatures of particular languages, nations, or regions (e.g., Belgian literature; English literature; Scandinavian literature). For the relationship of theatre to music and to dance, see theatre music; opera; dance. For treatment of the theatre of non-European peoples, see Islamic arts: Dance and theatre; East Asian arts: Dance and theatre; South Asian arts: Dance and theatre; Southeast Asian arts: The performing arts; Central Asian arts: Performing arts: dance and theatre; African arts: Literature and theatre. Though the word theatre is derived from the Greek theaomai, to see, the performance itself may appeal either to the ear or to the eye, as is suggested by the interchangeability of the terms spectator (which derives from words meaning to view) and audience (which derives from words meaning to hear). Sometimes the appeal is strongly intellectual, as in Shakespeare's Hamlet, but the intellectual element in itself is no assurance of good theatre. A good performance of Hamlet, for example, is extremely difficult to achieve, and a poor one is much less rewarding than a brilliant presentation of a farce. Moreover, a good Hamlet makes demands on the spectator that may be greater than he is prepared to put forward, while the farce may be enjoyed in a condition of comparative relaxation. The full participation of the spectator is a vital element in theatre. There is a widespread misconception that the art of theatre can be discussed solely in terms of the intellectual content of the script. Theatre is not essentially a literary art, though it has been so taught in some universities and schools. For many years the works of the Greek dramatists, Shakespeare, and other significant writers such as Schiller were more likely to be studied than performed in their entirety. The literary side of a theatrical production works most effectively when it is subordinated to the histrionic. The strongest impact on the audience is made by acting, singing, and dancing, followed by spectaclethe background against which those activities take place. Later, on reflection, the spectator may find that the meaning of the text has made the more enduring impression, but more often the literary merit of the script, or its message, is a comparatively minor element. Yet it is often assumed that the theatrical experience can be assimilated by reading the text of a play. In part, this is a result of the influence of theatrical critics, who, as writers, tend to have a literary orientation. Their influence is magnified by the fact that serious theatre cannot be made widely available; for each person who sees an important production, thousands of others will know it only through the notices of critics. While reviewers in the popular papers may give greater credence to such elements as acting and dancing, critics in the more serious journals may be more interested in textual and thematic values. Such influences vary from country to country, of course. In New York City a critic for one newspaper, The New York Times, may determine the fate and historical record of a production, assuring it a successful run or forcing it to close overnight. In London, audiences have notoriously resisted the will of the critics, and in some cities, such as Moscow, reviews may take many weeks to appear. This is not to say that the contribution of the author to the theatrical experience is unimportant. The script of a play is the basic element of theatrical performance. In the case of many masterpieces it is the most important element. But even these dramatic masterpieces demand the creative cooperation of artists other than the author. The dramatic script, like an operatic score or the scenario of a ballet, is no more than the raw material from which the performance is created. The actors, rather than merely reflecting a creation that has already been fully expressed in the script, give body, voice, and imagination to what was only a shadowy indication in the text. The text of a play is as vague and incomplete in relation to a fully realized performance as is a musical score to a concert. The Hamlets of two great actors probably differ more than two virtuoso renditions of Bach's Goldberg Variations possibly can. In general, the truly memorable theatrical experience is one in which the various elements of performance are brought into a purposeful harmony. It is a performance in which the text has revealed its meanings and intentions through skillful acting in an environment designed with the appropriate measure of beauty or visual drama. This article contains a treatment of the art of theatre in the most general terms, an attempt to illuminate what it is and why it has been regarded as a fundamental human activity throughout history. The theatrical traditions of the various cultures of the world are considered at length in articles such as theatre, history of; African arts: Literature and theatre; East Asian arts: Dance and theatre; Southeast Asian arts: The performing arts; and in articles on the literatures of various nationse.g., English literature, Russian literature. A more extensive treatment of the elements of theatre can be found in theatrical production. The genres of dramatic literature are discussed in dramatic literature. also spelled Theater, in architecture, building or space in which a performance may be given before an audience. The word is from the Greek theatron, a place of seeing. A theatre usually has a stage area where the performance itself is given. Since ancient times the evolving design of theatres has been determined largely by the spectators' physical requirements for seeing and hearing the performers and by the changing nature of the activity presented. Asian drama has undergone relatively little change over time, and its stage arrangement has remained rather simple, with the audience usually grouped informally around an open space. The most notable exceptions are the no and kabuki of Japan. Since the 14th century, no has been performed on a templelike wooden stage approached from a bridge at the side, though today this is for the most part reconstructed in a modern auditorium. Kabuki, for which the revolving stage was invented, uses a stage similar to the Western-style proscenium-arch theatre, but with the addition of a runway (hanamichi). In ancient Greece, where Western theatre began (5th century BC), the theatres of the classical period were constructed in natural hollows between two hills, so that the audience sat in a tiered semicircular arrangement facing the orchestra circle, in which most of the action took place. In the Hellenistic period the speaking actors stood on a raised platform behind the orchestra circle. The best-preserved Greek theatre, at Epidaurus, seats about 12,000 people and is still in use today. The Roman theatre, dating from the 1st century BC, improved the acoustics by reducing the orchestra to a half-circle and joining it to the auditorium. The single-level stage, though raised, was at a much lower level than in the Hellenistic theatre. An ambitious vaulting construction enabled the tiered auditorium to be built on flat ground. After the collapse of the Roman Empire and the rise of Christianity, theatre as an organized entertainment vanished for nearly 1,000 years. New forms of theatre grew out of the Roman Catholic mass; simple dramas were first performed in the church as part of the mass to explain and elaborate on the liturgy. These precursors of the medieval mystery plays were later performed outside on church grounds and eventually on temporary stages erected in the marketplace or on movable pageant wagons. By the close of the European Middle Ages these plays had become elaborate spectacles that combined both secular and religious traditions. Renewed interest in the classical world, generated by the Renaissance in the 16th century, gave rise to the permanent indoor theatre. The first of these, the Olimpico Theatre in Vicenza, Italy, was designed by Andrea Palladio and completed in 1585. It was a scaled-down version of the Roman theatre and featured, behind the stage, three-dimensional perspective views of street scenes. At the Farnese Theatre in Parma, built in 1618, the stage was framed by the first permanent proscenium arch (which separated the stage from the auditorium) and used movable scenery, the audience sitting in a horseshoe-shaped auditorium. The Farnese Theatre was the prototype of the modern theatre. The public theatres of Elizabethan England developed independently of the Italian tradition. Although the exact design of these theatres is uncertain, it is known that they were open to the sky, with the audience looking down from tiered galleries or up from a courtyard. The most significant feature was the thrust rectangular stage, from which the actor was surrounded on three sides by the spectators. The Golden Age of Spanish theatre in the late 16th century used a stage similar to the Elizabethan one. The popular tradition of the commedia dell'arte, spreading through Europe at this time from Italy, represented a return to medieval-style staging, with the actors performing on a raised platform in a public square. During the Baroque period, from the middle of the 17th century, the European court theatres followed the principle of proscenium stage and horseshoe-shaped auditorium. They were built for the purpose of housing the early operas and played an important role in the development of classical ballet. They featured a sunken orchestra pit at the front of the stage and made extensive use of movable scenery. The rigid hierarchy of the court was reflected in the position of the royal box in the centre of the auditorium, with the tiered balconies above it. The court theatre at the Palace of Versailles in France, designed in 1769, is one of the best-preserved examples. When opera became more popular and spectacular in the 18th century, this kind of theatre was enlarged to provide public entertainment for the upper classes. La Scala in Milan, Italy, completed in 1778, can seat more than 2,000 people. During the 18th century richly detailed productions employed new, complicated mechanical devices and historically accurate costuming and props. The Restoration playhouse in England followed the Baroque pattern, with the addition of an apron stage that extended in front of the proscenium arch and, like the Elizabethan stage, allowed greater intimacy with the audience. Illumination during this period was provided by candles and other wick-burning devices placed in the wings, at the front of the stage, and in the auditorium. It was Richard Wagner's Festspielhaus, built at Bayreuth, Ger., in 1876, that first departed from the Baroque stratified auditorium and reintroduced classical principles of theatre design that are still in use. The Festspielhaus had a steep, fan-shaped seating plan, with the orchestra concealed in a deep, partially covered pit, and, for the first time, the auditorium was darkened during the performance. Everything in this austere theatre was geared to encourage the sharpest concentration on the action on stage. Late in the 19th century, electric lighting was introduced, which meant that the stage could be lit more brightly and without such a high risk of fire. Most innovations in theatre design during the 20th century have derived from the greater flexibility in staging made possible first by machinery that can move more complicated sets and even alter the shape of the stage, and by the emergence of stage lighting as an art in its own right. One of the results has been the development of more plastic stage settings that have freed the theatre from the constrictions of the picture-frame proscenium arch. Open, or thrust, stages, like that of the Guthrie Theatre (1963), Minneapolis, Minn., U.S., have come to be favoured in the 20th century, particularly for classical plays, because of the intimacy they afford. A more recent example is the Olivier Theatre (1976), part of London's National Theatre complex, which is strongly influenced by the Greek theatre at Epidaurus. Appreciation has also grown for smaller, more flexible theatre spaces (sometimes within large, multipurpose complexes) as an alternative to the impressive institutional buildings. Such theatres have proved particularly valuable as a forum for new writing or for the reassessment of classical works. Many theatre companies housed in large buildings also maintain studio theatres, more intimate rooms in which less commercially viable works can be performed. Additional reading John Gassner, Producing the Play, rev. ed. (1953), descriptions of standard practices in major aspects of theatrical production until the middle of the 20th century; and Toby Cole and Helen Krich Chinoy (eds.), Actors on Acting, new rev. ed. (1970), and Directors on Directing, 2nd rev. ed. (1963, reprinted 1976), collections of essays by actors and directors, respectively. The insights of prominent persons in the field, with coverage of their working methods, are found in Eugenio Barba, The Floating Islands: Reflections with Odin Teatret, trans. from Danish, Italian, and Norwegian (1979); Jerzy Grotowski, Towards a Poor Theatre (1968, reissued 1975); and Erwin Piscator, The Political Theatre (1978; originally published in German, 1929). Studies of directing include Edward Braun, The Director and the Stage: From Naturalism to Grotowski (1982).Phyllis Hartnoll (ed.), The Oxford Companion to the Theatre, 4th ed. (1983), is a reference source. For further research, the following bibliographies are recommended: David F. Cheshire, Theatre: History, Criticism, and Reference (1967), a guide to theatre books in English, with emphasis on the British stage; and Claudia Jean Bailey, A Guide to Reference and Bibliography for Theatre Research, 2nd rev. ed. (1983). Studies of theatrical history and philosophy include Oscar G. Brockett, History of the Theatre, 4th ed. (1982); Allardyce Nicoll, The Development of the Theatre: A Study of Theatrical Art from the Beginnings to the Present Day, 5th rev. ed. (1966); Barrett H. Clark, European Theories of the Drama; with a Supplement on American Drama: An Anthology of Dramatic Theory and Criticism from Aristotle to the Present Day, rev. ed., edited by Henry Popkin (1965); George Freedley and John A. Reeves, A History of the Theatre, 3rd rev. ed. (1968); A.M. Nagler, Sources of Theatrical History (1952, reissued 1959); and Keir Elam, The Semiotics of Theatre and Drama (1980). Specific periods and areas are examined in Margarete Bieber, The History of the Greek and Roman Theater, 2nd rev. ed. (1961); E.K. Chambers, The Medieval Stage, 2 vol. (1903, reprinted 1978); A.M. Nagler, Theatre Festivals of the Medici, 15391637 (1964, reprinted 1976); A.M. Nagler, Shakespeare's Stage, enlarged ed., trans. from the German (1981); Michael Hattaway, Elizabethan Popular Theatre (1982); Giuliana Ricci, Teatri d'Italia: Dalla Magna Grecia all'Ottocento (1971); Margarete Baur-Heinhold, The Baroque Theatre: A Cultural History of the 17th and 18th Centuries (1967; originally published in German, 1966); Leslie Hotson, The Commonwealth and Restoration Stage (1928, reissued 1962); Michael R. Booth, Victorian Spectacular Theatre, 18501910 (1981); Howard Goorney, The Theatre Workshop Story (1981); Gerald M. Berkowitz, New Broadways: Theatre Across America, 19501980 (1982); Faubion Bowers, Theatre in the East (1956, reprinted 1980); A.C. Scott, An Introduction to the Chinese Theatre (1958); and Balwant Gargi, Theatre in India (1962). Historical developments are studied in the following works: William Tydeman, The Theatre in the Middle Ages: Western European Stage Conditions, c. 8001576 (1978); George R. Kernodle, From Art to Theatre: Form and Convention in the Renaissance (1944); Barnard Hewitt, The Renaissance Stage: Documents of Serlio, Sabbattini, and Furttenbach (1958); Alan C. Dessen, Elizabethan Stage Conventions and Modern Interpreters (1984); Andrew Curr, The Shakespearean Stage, 15741642, 2nd ed. (1980); Ashley Horace Thorndike, Shakespeare's Theater (1916, reprinted 1968); C. Walter Hodges, The Globe Restored (1953, reprinted 1977); Allardyce Nicoll, Stuart Masques and the Renaissance Stage (1938, reprinted 1980); and Per Bjurstrm, Giacomo Torelli and Baroque Stage Design (1961).Architecture and construction of theatres are examined in Donald C. Mullin, The Development of the Playhouse: A Survey of Theatre Architecture from the Renaissance to the Present (1970); Roberto Aloi, Architetture per lo spettacolo (1958); Maxwell Silverman, Contemporary Theatre Architecture: An Illustrated Survey (1965); Jo Mielziner, The Shapes of Our Theatre (1970); Harold Burris-Meyer and Edward C. Cole, Theatres and Auditoriums, 2nd ed. (1964, reprinted 1975); Oskar Schlemmer, Laszlo Moholy-Nagy, and Farkas Molnr, The Theater of the Bauhaus (1961, reissued 1979; originally published in German, 1925); Gerhard Graubner, Theaterbau: Aufgabe und Planung (1968); George C. Izenour, Theater Design (1977); and Edwin O. Sachs and Ernest A.E. Woodrow, Modern Opera Houses and Theatres, 3 vol. (189698, reprinted 1981). Additional reading Few works deal extensively with the aesthetics of theatre as a body of knowledge or theory unrelated to particular productions, schools of playwriting, or historical periods. Notable modern exceptions are Antonin Artaud, The Theatre and Its Double (1958; originally published in French, 1938), which considers theatre in its broadest implications and has had enormous influence on avant-garde theatre since World War II; and Jerzy Grotowski, Towards a Poor Theatre (1968, reissued 1975), an elucidation of personal artistic values by the director-teacher whose Polish Laboratory Theatre has been among the most controversial and innovative theatres of the century. The ideas of one of the 20th century's most important playwrights and directors emerge in Brecht on Theatre: The Development of an Aesthetic, edited and translated by John Willett (1964, reissued 1978). A tendentious view of the shaping of 20th-century theatre by an influential director emerges in Erwin Piscator, The Political Theatre, translated and edited by Hugh Rorrison (1978; originally published in German, 1929).Perceptive analyses of aesthetic points of view represented in theatrical production include Mordecai Gorelik, New Theatres for Old (1940, reprinted 1975), a classic work on staging and design that covers the late 19th century and first four decades of the 20th; Bernard Shaw, Our Theatres in the Nineties, 3 vol. (1932, reprinted 1954), an incisive contemporary view of drama in the 1890s; and the writings of such major 20th-century critics as Harley Granville-Barker, Stark Young, George Jean Nathan, and Kenneth Tynan. Personal histories by leading theoreticians and practitioners, including Konstantin Stanislavsky, My Life in Art, translated from the Russian (1924, reissued 1980); and Harold Clurman, The Fervent Years: The Story of the Group Theatre and the Thirties (1957, reissued 1983), carry implicit commentaries on the art of theatre. Konstantin Stanislavsky, An Actor Prepares, translated from the Russian (1936, reissued 1980); and Toby Cole (comp.), Acting: A Handbook of the Stanislavski Method, rev. ed. (1955, reprinted 1971), though specialized, develop aesthetic points of view that have underlain much of the theatrical production in the West during the 20th century. A classic study of the aesthetic intentions of theatre is contained in Francis Fergusson, The Idea of a Theatre (1949, reprinted 1972); while Peter Brook, The Empty Space (1968, reprinted 1981), is a brilliant analysis of theatrical values as manifested in such diverse areas as commercialized drama, the popular, or rough, theatre, and the dedicated avant-garde, or holy, theatre. A detailed examination of the development of experimental theatre in the 20th century can be found in Christopher Innes, Holy Theatre: Ritual and the Avant Garde (1981).An overviewoutdated but still singularof the many different forms and aesthetic conditions of Oriental theatre is contained in Faubion Bowers, Theatre in the East (1956, reprinted 1980). Discussions of the conditions under which theatrical forms have emerged appear in many works, including Sir James Frazer, The Golden Bough, 3rd ed., 12 vol. (190715), available also in numerous later editions, both complete and abridged, and those of Margaret Mead and other anthropologists. Finally, such periodicals as Drama Review (quarterly; formerly, Tulane Drama Review), Theatre Arts (193964), and Theatre Quarterly (197181), contain important reportorial, critical, and philosophical writing on theatre as both an artistic and a social expression. Ned Chaillet The Editors of the Encyclopdia Britannica Developments of the Renaissance Just before 1500, Italian amateur actors were performing classical comedies on stages with no decoration except for a row of curtained booths. By 1589, complex painted scenery and scene changes were being featured in production in Florence. And by 1650, Italy had developed staging practices that would dominate European theatre for the next 150 years. In the beginning of the Renaissance, there were two distinct kinds of theatrical productions. The first was of the type presented by the humanist Julius Laetus at the Accademia Romana, a semisecret society he founded in the mid-15th century for the purpose of reviving classical ideals. In terms of staging, several medieval-type mansions were clustered to form a single large unit. There were, however, two elements not found previously. One was that the mansions were probably framed by decorative columns. This was the first movement toward the framework that would develop into the proscenium archthe arch that encloses the curtain and frames the stage from the viewpoint of the audience. (The first permanent proscenium was built in the Teatro Farnese at Parma, Italy, in 161819, a temporary one having been constructed by Francesco Salviati 50 years earlier.) The second innovation was that the mansions, by being linked, were treated as components of a general city street. In 1508 at Ferrara a background painted according to the rules of perspective was substituted for the mansions; the scene included houses, churches, towers, and gardens. The revival of theatre building in Italy The revival of theatre building, first sponsored by 16th-century ducal courts and academies in northern Italy, was part of the general renewal of interest in the classical heritage of Greece and Rome. The ruins of classical theatres were studied as models, along with Vitruvius' treatise on classical architecture. There were, however, new conditions that fundamentally affected design. First of all, the theatre's move indoors gave rise to problems of lighting and acoustics. Second, the newly formulated laws of perspective in painting, when applied to stage and scenic design, brought about a profound change in the effect of a stage on an audience. The first Renaissance theatres, like those of early antiquity, were temporary wooden constructions in gardens, ballrooms, and assembly halls. Sometimes they were hastily erected affairs, put up to celebrate the births and weddings of ducal offspring or to commemorate victories in war. The theatrical performances given were mostly of allegorical pageantry, but the scenic spectacle was calculated to dazzle the eye and often succeeded. One court vied with another for the services of painters, sculptors, architects, and innovators in stagecraft. Such artists as Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, Vasari, Bramante, Raphael, and a host of other Italian painters, sculptors, and architects, as well as poets, such as Tasso, and musicians, such as Monteverdi, strove to please and exalt the reputations, real or imaginary, of their princely patrons. A more sober attempt to revive the classical theatre was made by the academies, organized by upper-class gentlemen who assembled to read and, on occasion, to participate in and to support financially productions of classical drama. The plays were generally of three kinds: contemporary poetic dramas based on ancient texts; Latinized versions of Greek dramas; and the works of Seneca, Terence, and Plautus in the original. Toward the middle of the 15th century, scholars discovered the manuscripts of the Roman writer Vitruvius; one of these scholars, the architect and humanist Leon Battista Alberti, wrote De re aedificatoria (1452; first printed in 1485), which stimulated the desire to build in the style of the classical stage. In 1545, Sebastiano Serlio published his Trattato de architettura, a work that concentrated entirely on the practical stage of the early 16th century. Serlio's treatise on the theatre had three especially significant items. The first was a plan for an auditorium and stage that assumed a rectangular hall, with spectators arranged in the same pattern as in the Roman cavea (i.e., the tiered semicircular seating area of a Roman theatre), the difference being that the semicircle of the audience was cut short by the sidewalls. Second, his three types of stage designstragic, comic, and satiricwere the same as Vitruvius' classifications. Third, for the stage, he started with a Roman acting platform, but instead of the scaenae frons, he introduced a raked platform, slanted upward toward the rear, on which the perspective setting of a street was made up of painted canvases and three-dimensional houses. Since the perspective required that the houses rapidly diminish in size with distance, the actors were able to use only the front houses. Serlio used three types of scenes, all with the same basic floor plan. Each required four sets of wings (i.e., the pieces of scenery at the side of the stage), the first three angled and the fourth flat, and a perspective backdrop. The Accademia Olimpica in the little town of Vicenza, near Venice, commissioned a famous late Renaissance architect, Andrea Palladio, to design a theatre. This, the Teatro Olimpico, was the first permanent modern indoor theatre, and it has survived intact. Palladio thoroughly researched his subject (the outdoor classical theatre of Rome) and without knowing it designed something now considered very close to a Roman odeum. It is a scaled-down version of an outdoor Roman theatre, with shallow open stage and a heavily sculptured, pedimented, permanent background. A colonnade of heroic proportions, surmounted by sculptured figures, surrounds a steeply stepped bank of seating. Overhead is a painted sky. To promote an intimate stageauditorium relationship, he used a flattened ellipse in planning the seating, rather than the classic half circle. The interior was to be lit by tallow candles mounted in wall sconces. Palladio died before the building was finished, and his follower Vincenzo Scamozzi completed the work in 1585. Behind the five stage entrances (attributed to Scamozzi) are static, three-dimensional vistas of streets receding to their separate vanishing points; it is not certain whether this was the intent of the original design. In performance, the theatre is efficient if the auditorium is full, and speech carries quite well because of the small volume, flat ceiling, modulated sidewalls, excellent vertical sight lines, and direct hearing lines from all seats to the stage. The exterior is an ungainly, masonry-walled structure with a wood-trussed, tiled roof. In 158889 Scamozzi designed the Teatro all'Antica, a small court theatre for the Gonzaga family at Sabbioneta. Unlike the Teatro Olimpico the stage here is a single architectural vista behind a shallow-raked open platform, after the manner of the stage illustrated by Sebastiano Serlio. At Sabbioneta a divided horsehoe-shaped bank of seating leaves an empty arena, at floor level, in front of the stage. This space, backed by the permanent bank of seating, can be used for additional seating, but it also accommodates other uses and paves the way for the most famous and influential of all Renaissance theatre buildings, the Teatro Farnese. The Teatro Farnese lies about 12 miles west of Sabbioneta at Parma, in a palace of the Farnese family. The theatre, designed by Giovanni Battista Aleotti and built in 1618 (but not used until 1628, to celebrate the marriage of a Medici daughter to a Farnese son), was the first proscenium theatre to be designed for movable scenery and is the earliest large-scale indoor theatrical facility to have survived. It was severely damaged by fire bombing in World War II but has since been restored to its former glory. There has also survived an extensive catalog giving details of events held there, including some contemporary comment on performances. The catalog describes the variety of uses to which the theatre was put: drama, opera, and ballet were performed on stage; equestrian acts and sumptuous balls were held in the spacious arena between stage and seating, which could also be flooded to a depth of two feet and used for mock naval battles; and, in addition, the theatre accommodated such court ceremonies as ambassadorial receptions, proclamations of state, and princely extravaganzas. The Teatro Farnese has windows (as did the Teatro Olimpico and the Teatro all'Antica at Sabbioneta before it) behind and above the banked seating, which helped to illuminate the space during daytime use; tallow candles or animal-fat lamps, in wall and overhead fixtures, were the only source of nighttime illumination for this and all interior theatres until the introduction of gas lighting in the 19th century. The Teatro Farnese set the style for stage and auditorium design over the next 250 years, with the exception of the courtyard-patio (corrales) theatre in Spain and the Elizabethan and Jacobean theatre of England. George C. Izenour Howard Bay Clive Barker