THEOPHILUS

died Jan. 20, 842, Constantinople Eastern Roman emperor (829842), principal promoter of the 9th-century Byzantine renascence of learning, and the last advocate of the Eastern heresy of Iconoclasm (the destruction of religious images) in a reign beset by Arab invasions. The son of the emperor Michael II, of the Phrygian dynasty traditionally favourable to Iconoclasm, Theophilus was liberally educated by the Byzantine scholar and ardent Iconoclast John Philoponus. He was also much influenced by the learned court of the early 9th-century caliph of Baghdad Harun ar-Rashid. Theophilus was crowned as co-emperor in 820 and shortly thereafter married a beauty, Theodora, chosen from a group of candidates. On becoming sole emperor in 829, he emulated Harun ar-Rashid by wandering about the capital informally, listening to his subjects' complaints. An intelligent financier and administrator, he dispatched architects and engineers to construct fortresses which would anchor Byzantium's northern defenses against the Vikings and the Magyars. He also bolstered his defenses, east and west, against the Muslims. For despite his interest in their culture, Theophilus was compelled to war with the Muslims throughout his reign. Having repelled the caliph Ma'mun, Theophilus met with disastrous reversals at the hands of Ma'mun's brother, the caliph al-Mu'tasim, who struck at the most important centres of Asia Minor on the route to Constantinople. Theophilus was defeated in a bloody battle at Dazimon (now Dazmana, Tur.) in July 838. Ancyra fell, and a month later al-Mu'tasim took Amorium, one of the empire's chief fortresses and the home of Theophilus' dynasty. Exploiting dissension within the Arab camp, however, Theophilus in 841, with the help of Spanish Moors, captured Melitene on the Armenian border, forcing al-Mu'tasim to sign a truce. Under Theophilus, Iconoclasm was given full rein. To weaken the political influence of Greek Orthodox monasticism, the Emperor and John Philoponus (who had become patriarch of Constantinople) mounted a persecution against the users of icons in Orthodox liturgy and devotion. Support for Iconoclasm soon waned, however, and the vast majority of the Greek Orthodox rallied to the defense of their sacred art. The Byzantine cultural revival stimulated by Theophilus included two significant advances in the area of classical studies: the gradual substitution of the minuscule, or smaller, cursive hand for the uncial, or larger, script, and the increase in the number of scriptoria, or copyists' workshops. Theophilus also restored the University of Constantinople after its 8th-century decline and appointed the brilliant Byzantine teacher Leo the Mathematician as its new rector. flourished 12th century also called Theophilus Presbyter, probable pseudonym of Roger Of Helmarshausen German monk who wrote De diversis artibus (c. 111040; also called Schedula diversarum artium), an exhaustive account of the techniques of almost all the known crafts of the first half of the 12th century. From his writings it can be deduced that Theophilus was of the Benedictine order and that he was a practicing craftsman. He may have been the celebrated German metalworker Roger of Helmarshausen, a monk who made a portable altar (1100) now in the cathedral treasury at Paderborn. Theophilus shows considerable interest in the techniques of metalwork, but he also discusses the crafts of wall painting, manuscript illumination, stained glass, and ivory carving. The work is divided into three books, and the introduction to each is of interest in reflecting the attitude to his art of a practicing medieval craftsman who was also an educated person. It contains the earliest references in Europe to paper and to oil painting. C.R. Dodwell edited the definitive Latin text with an English translation in 1961.