TWELVE PATRIARCHS, TESTAMENTS OF THE

pseudepigraphal work (not in any biblical canon) purporting to present the last words of the 12 sons of Jacobfounders of the 12 tribes of Israel. The book is an imitation of the blessing of Jacob described in chapter 49 of Genesis, but, unlike its model, this work contains lengthy moral exhortations based on the supposed sin or virtue of each patriarch. Each essay includes an autobiography of the patriarch, including many elements of folk history (Haggada); an admonitory passage warning against the specific vice of the patriarch; and a prophecy, sometimes with apocalyptic overtones, explaining the fate of the patriarch's sons in the Last Age. In general, the admonitions are based on a belief in resurrection and the Last Judgment, and the tone of the work is decidedly pietistic and ascetic. In its extant form, the book is a Jewish work, probably of the late 2nd century AD, with Christian interpolations. It was written in Greek, and Semitic originals are known for only two of the testaments, those of Levi and Naphtali. The Testaments are connected historically and ideologically with the Essene sect at Qumran and their Dead Sea Scrolls, among which the fragments of the testaments of Levi (in Aramaic) and Naphtali (in Hebrew) were found. Further, many parallels exist between the Testaments and the Damascus Document (q.v.) produced by the Essenes, though there are also important differences. The work is extant in several Greek manuscripts and in Armenian and Slavic translations.