A PRIORI KNOWLEDGE

in Western philosophy since the time of Immanuel Kant, knowledge that is independent of all particular experiences, as opposed to a posteriori knowledge, which derives from experience alone. The Latin phrases a priori ("from what is before") and a posteriori ("from what is after") were used in philosophy originally to distinguish between arguments from causes and arguments from effects. The first recorded occurrence of the phrases is in the writings of the 14th-century logician Albert of Saxony. Here, an argument a priori is said to be "from causes to the effect" and an argument a posteriori to be "from effects to causes." Similar definitions were given by many later philosophers down to and including G.W. Leibniz, and the expressions still occur sometimes with these meanings in nonphilosophical contexts. It should be remembered that medieval logicians used the word "cause" in a syllogistic sense corresponding to Aristotle's aitia and did not necessarily mean by prius something earlier in time. This point is brought out by the use of the phrase demonstratio propter quid ("demonstration on account of what") as an equivalent for demonstratio a priori and of demonstratio quia ("demonstration that, or because") as an equivalent for demonstratio a posteriori. Hence the reference is obviously to Aristotle's distinction between knowledge of the ground or explanation of something and knowledge of the mere fact. Latent in this distinction for Kant is the antithesis between necessary, deductive truth and probable, inductive truth. The former applies to a priori judgments, which are arrived at independently of experience and hold universally; the latter applies to a posteriori judgments, which are contingent on experience and therefore must acknowledge possible exceptions. In his Critique of Pure Reason Kant used these distinctions, in part, to explain the special case of mathematical knowledge, which he regarded as the fundamental example of a priori knowledge. Although the use of a priori to distinguish knowledge such as that which we have in mathematics is comparatively recent, the interest of philosophers in that kind of knowledge is almost as old as philosophy itself. No one finds it puzzling that one can acquire information by looking, feeling, or listening, but philosophers who have taken seriously the possibility of learning by mere thinking have often considered that this requires some special explanation. Plato maintained in his Meno and in his Phaedo that the learning of geometrical truths was only the recollection of knowledge possessed in a previous existence when we could contemplate the eternal ideas, or forms, directly. Augustine and his medieval followers, sympathizing with Plato's intentions but unable to accept the details of his theory, declared that the ideas were in the mind of God, who from time to time gave intellectual illumination to men. Ren Descartes, going further in the same direction, held that all the ideas required for a priori knowledge were innate in each human mind. For Kant the puzzle was to explain the possibility of a priori judgments that were also synthetic (i.e., not merely explicative of concepts), and the solution that he proposed was the doctrine that space, time, and the categories (e.g., causality), about which we were able to make such judgments, were forms imposed by the mind on the stuff of experience. In each of these theories the possibility of a priori knowledge is explained by a suggestion that we have a privileged opportunity for studying the subject matter of such knowledge. The same conception recurs also in the very un-Platonic theory of a priori knowledge first enunciated by Thomas Hobbes in his De Corpore and adopted in the 20th century by the logical empiricists. According to this theory, statements of necessity can be made a priori because they are merely by-products of our own rules for the use of language.