AUDUBON, JOHN JAMES

born April 26, 1785, Les Cayes, Saint-Domingue, West Indies [now in Haiti] died Jan. 27, 1851, New York, N.Y., U.S. original name Fougre Rabin, or Jean Rabin, baptismal name Jean-jacques Fougre Audubon ornithologist, artist, and naturalist who became particularly well known for his drawings and paintings of North American birds. The illegitimate son of a French merchant, planter, and slave trader and a Creole woman of Saint-Domingue, Audubon and his illegitimate half-sister (who was also born in the West Indies) were legalized by adoption in 1794, five years after their father returned to France. Young Audubon developed an interest in drawing birds during his boyhood in France. At age 18 he was sent to the United States in order to avoid conscription and to enter business. He began his study of North American birds at that time; this study would eventually lead him from Florida to Labrador, Can. With Frederick Rozier, Audubon attempted to operate a mine, then a general store. The latter venture they attempted first in Louisville, Ky., later in Henderson, Ky., but the partnership was dissolved after they failed utterly. Audubon then attempted some business ventures in partnership with his brother-in-law; these, too, failed. By 1820 he had begun to take what jobs he could to provide a living and to concentrate on his steadily growing interest in drawing birds; he worked for a time as a taxidermist, later making portraits and teaching drawing, while his wife worked as a governess. By 1824 he began to consider publication of his bird drawings, but he was advised to seek a publisher in Europe, where he would find better engravers and greater interest in his subject. In 1826 he went to Europe in search of patrons and a publisher. He was well received in Edinburgh and, after the king subscribed for his books, in London as well. The engraver Robert Havell of London undertook publication of his illustrations as The Birds of America, 4 vol. (435 hand-coloured plates, 182738). William MacGillivray helped write the accompanying text, Ornithological Biography, 5 vol. (octavo, 183139), and A Synopsis of the Birds of North America, 1 vol. (1839), which serves as an index. Until 1839 Audubon divided his time between Europe and the United States, gathering material, completing illustrations, and financing publication through subscription. His reputation established, Audubon then settled in New York City and prepared a smaller edition of his Birds of America, 7 vol. (octavo, 184044), and a new work, Viviparous Quadrupeds of North America, 3 vol. (150 plates, 184548), and the accompanying text (3 vol., 184653), completed with the aid of his sons and the naturalist John Bachman. Critics of Audubon's work have pointed to certain fanciful (or even impossible) poses and inaccurate details, but few argue with their excellence as art. To many, Audubon's work far surpasses that of his contemporary (and more scientific) fellow ornithologist, Alexander Wilson.