CALVO DOCTRINE

a body of international rules regulating the jurisdiction of governments over aliens and the scope of their protection by their home states, as well as the use of force in collecting indemnities. The doctrine was advanced by the Argentine diplomat and legal scholar Carlos Calvo, in his International Law of Europe and America in Theory and Practice (1868). It affirmed that rules governing the jurisdiction of a country over aliens and the collection of indemnities should apply equally to all nations, regardless of size. It further stated that foreigners who held property in Latin American states and who had claims against the governments of such states should apply to the courts within such nations for redress instead of seeking diplomatic intervention. Moreover, according to the doctrine, nations were not entitled to use armed force to collect debts owed them by other nations. A Calvo clause in a contract between the government of a Latin American state and an alien stipulates that the latter agrees unconditionally to the adjudication within the state concerned of any dispute between the contracting parties. The Calvo Doctrine was essentially restated by the Drago Doctrine, articulated by the Argentine foreign minister Luis Mara Drago in 1902. Venezuela then was indebted to Great Britain, Germany, and Italy, which threatened armed intervention to collect. Drago advised the United States government that The public debt cannot occasion armed intervention nor even the actual occupation of the territory of American nations. This statement against European intervention in the Americas squared with U.S. policy, as set forth in the Monroe Doctrine (1823) and the Roosevelt Corollary (1904); the U.S. government assented to the modified Drago version at the second Hague Peace Conference (1907) in the form adopted as the Porter Convention on the Limitation of the Employment of Force for the Recovery of Contract Debts. Although the United States opposed European intervention in the Americas, it reserved for itself the right, frequently used, to intervene with armed force in any Latin-American state where conditions seemed to menace U.S. interests.