DAMAGES

in law, money compensation for loss or injury caused by the wrongful act of another. Recovery of damages is the objective of most civil litigation. Originally redress of wrongs was directan eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth. The introduction of monetary systems and dissatisfaction with the inequities of this vengeful redress led to settling disputes by awarding money damages. Today the concept is present in virtually every body of law. Although there was a developed system of monetary compensation for wrongs in Roman law and although the remedy appeared early in the development of English law and became the primary remedy of the common-law courts, the growth of the modern law of damages is a function in large part of the importance of the jury in Anglo-American legal procedure. In the United States particularly, a body of legal doctrine has developed around such issues as how evidence may be submitted to a jury, how a judge may instruct a jury on the law, and what damages a jury may award for particular wrongs. Damages are generally awarded under contract and tort law. When one party to a contract fails to perform his obligation, the other can seek damages under three headings: (1) restitution, which restores to him whatever goods, services, or money he has given the breaching party, (2) expectation, which rewards him as if the contract had been fully performed (this includes profits anticipated on the contract), and (3) reliance, which gives him compensation for expenditures made or liabilities incurred in reliance on the contract's being performed. Reliance damages are limited to consequences that are reasonably foreseeable by the parties at the time that they contracted. These remedies can be invoked in various combinations, as long as the aggrieved party is not left better off than if the breach had not occurred. Under tort law, the measure of compensation is usually the money value of any losses or injuries sustained as a natural and proximate result of the wrongful act (e.g., negligently causing an automobile accident). Exactly what losses or injuries are natural and proximate results is often very difficult to determine. Usually no damages for speculative itemssuch as profitscan be recovered. The personal-injury action (e.g., one arising out of an automobile accident) exemplifies the kind of litigation for which damages are awarded. The elements of recovery that can be considered in such an action include the loss of time as a result of the injury (frequently measured by the loss of wages that has occurred), the amount that has been expended for medical services, and a sum designed to compensate the injured person for the pain and suffering that has resulted from the injury. Because only one award is made in a common-law system for an injury resulting from a single wrongful act, it is necessary also to include in this award the damages that will occur in the future as a result of the injury. These future losses, though obviously speculative, usually can include the loss of earning capacity, the reasonable cost of the medical services that the injured person will incur, and the future suffering that the injured person is reasonably certain to undergo. The theory of an award of damages in a personal-injury or other tort case is that the injured party should be placed in the position he would have been in if the injury had not occurred, so far as this can be done with a monetary award. The possibility of achieving this goal is obviously far greater where the injury has been to a property interest rather than to the person. Where the legal wrong sued for is the breach of a contract, the theoretical end of the damages remedy is to give the injured contracting party the benefit of his bargain by putting him in the position he would have enjoyed if the contract had been performed. Applied, for example, to a contract to build a house which has been breached by the owner, this formula would give the builder the contract price less what it would cost to finish building the house. In addition to damages that are designed to compensate directly for loss suffered, other items may be recovered. Interest on money damages is frequently awarded on the reasoning that, when a sum of money is adjudged appropriate compensation as of a particular date, further loss occurs when the amount is not received until later. In some jurisdictions attorney fees are also recoverable. If the wrongful conduct that caused the loss is especially reckless or malicious, the court may award punitive (also called exemplary) damages in addition to compensatory damages, in order to express society's moral disapproval of the wrongdoer.