EDUCATION, HISTORY OF

history of the evolution of the formal teaching of knowledge and skills, from prehistoric and ancient times to the present and in all parts of the world and with the various philosophies that have inspired the resulting systems. Education can be thought of as the transmission of the values and accumulated knowledge of a society. In this sense, it is equivalent to what social scientists term socialization or enculturation. Childrenwhether conceived among New Guinea tribespeople, the Renaissance Florentines, or the middle classes of Manhattanare born without culture. Education is designed to guide them in learning a culture, molding their behaviour in the ways of adulthood, and directing them toward their eventual role in society. In the most primitive cultures, there is often little formal learning, little of what one would ordinarily call school or classes or teachers; instead, frequently, the entire environment and all activities are viewed as school and classes, and many or all adults act as teachers. As societies grow more complex, however, the quantity of knowledge to be passed on from one generation to the next becomes more than any one person can know; and hence there must evolve more selective and efficient means of cultural transmission. The outcome is formal educationthe school and the specialist called the teacher. As society becomes ever more complex and schools become ever more institutionalized, educational experience becomes less directly related to daily life, less a matter of showing and learning in the context of the workaday world, and more abstracted from practice, more a matter of distilling, telling, and learning things out of context. This concentration of learning in a formal atmosphere allows children to learn far more of their culture than they are able to do by merely observing and imitating. As society gradually attaches more and more importance to education, it also tries to formulate the overall objectives, content, organization, and strategies of education. Literature becomes laden with advice on the rearing of the younger generation. In short, there develop philosophies and theories of education. A further discussion of educational theory can be found in the article education, philosophy of. The teaching profession and the functions and methods of teachers are treated in teaching; teacher education; and pedagogy. Additional reading General works General histories of education are mainly concerned with the educational history of the West. In some works early chapters survey non-Western educational developments in the context of ancient civilizations, and medieval Muslim education is frequently treated because of its impact upon Western education. Given these limitations, among the best general histories are Ellwood P. Cubberley, The History of Education (1920, reissued 1948); James Bowen, A History of Western Education, 3 vol. (197281); William Boyd and Edmund J. King, The History of Western Education, 11th ed. (1975, reprinted 1980); R. Freeman Butts, The Education of the West (1973); Robert Ulich, The Education of Nations, rev. ed. (1967), and History of Educational Thought, rev. ed. (1968); Harry G. Good and James D. Teller, A History of Western Education, 3rd ed. (1969); James Mulhern, A History of Education: A Social Interpretation, 2nd ed. (1959); Mehdi Nakosteen, The History and Philosophy of Education (1965); and Margaret Scotford Archer, Social Origins of Educational Systems (1979).Despite its age, The five-volume A Cyclopedia of Education, ed. by the American educator Paul Monroe (191113, reprinted 1968), remains a comprehensive source of historical information. Its influence was recognized in Foster Watson (ed.), The Encyclopaedia and Dictionary of Education, 4 vol. (192122), a British work whose foreign contributors included John Dewey and Benedetto Croce. Lee C. Deighton (ed.), The Encyclopedia of Education, 10 vol. (1971), also has numerous historical references. There are many national encyclopaedias of historical interest in education.Among historical surveys of individual countries, the following are useful: W.H.G. Armytage, Four Hundred Years of English Education, 2nd ed. (1970); S.J. Curtis, History of Education in Great Britain, 7th ed. (1967); Christopher Brooke and Roger Highfield, Oxford and Cambridge (1988); Charles Fourrier, L'Enseignement franais de l'Antiquit la Rvolution (1964), and L'Enseignement franais de 1789 1945 (1965), on France; William H.E. Johnson, Russia's Educational Heritage (1950, reissued 1969); Tokiomi Kaigo, Japanese Education: Its Past and Present, 2nd ed. (1968); Ping-Wen Kuo, The Chinese System of Public Education (1915, reprinted 1972); T.N. Siqueira, The Education of India: History and Problems, 4th rev. ed. (1952); Ahmad Shalaby, History of Muslim Education (1954, reissued 1979); Allan Barcan, A History of Australian Education (1980); Roger Openshaw and David McKenzie (eds.), Reinterpreting the Educational Past: Essays in the History of New Zealand Education (1987); Lawrence A. Cremin, American Education, the Colonial Experience, 16071783 (1970), American Education, the National Experience, 17831876 (1980), and American Education, the Metropolitan Experience, 18751980 (1988); David B. Tyack, The One Best System: A History of American Urban Education (1974); and J. Donald Wilson, Robert M. Stamp, and Louis-Philippe Audet (eds.), Canadian Education (1970). Education in primitive and early civilized cultures There are few monographs dealing solely with education in primitive civilizations; information is to be found chiefly in works treating larger subjects, such as Margaret Mead, Continuities in Cultural Evolution (1964); George Dearborn Spindler (ed.), Education and Cultural Process: Anthropological Approaches, 2nd ed. (1987); Thomas Woody, Life and Education in Early Societies (1949, reprinted 1970); Christopher J. Lucas, Our Western Educational Heritage (1971); Henri Maspero, China in Antiquity (1978; originally published in French, 1927); J. Eric S. Thompson, The Rise and Fall of Maya Civilization, 2nd enlarged ed. (1966, reprinted 1977); Rudolph Van Zantwijk, The Aztec Arrangement: The Social History of Pre-Spanish Mexico (1985; originally published in Dutch, 1977); and George A. Collier, Renato I. Rosaldo, and John D. Wirth (eds.), The Inca and Aztec States, 14001800 (1982). Education in classical cultures In addition to the treatments offered in the general histories cited above, see Howard S. Galt, A History of Chinese Educational Institutions: To the End of the Five Dynasties, AD 960 (1951); Frederick A.G. Beck, Greek Education, 450350 BC (1964), and Album of Greek Education: The Greeks at School and at Play (1975); Stanley F. Bonner, Education in Ancient Rome: From the Elder Cato to the Younger Pliny (1977); M.L. Clarke, Higher Education in the Ancient World (1971); John P. Lynch, Aristotle's School: A Study of a Greek Educational Institution (1972); O.W. Reinmuth, The Ephebic Inscriptions of the Fourth Century BC (1971); W.H. Stahl, R. Johnson, and E.L. Burge, Martianus Capella and the Seven Liberal Arts (1971); Radhakumud Mookerji, Ancient Indian Education: Brahmanical and Buddhist, 4th ed. (1969); and Nathan Drazin, History of Jewish Education from 515 BCE to 220 CE (1940, reprinted 1979). Education in Persian, Byzantine, early Russian, and Islamic civilizations Ancient Persian culture and civilization are studied in Maneckji Nusservanji Dhalla, Zoroastrian Civilization (1922, reprinted 1977). For surveys of Byzantine education, see appropriate chapters in Steven Runciman, Byzantine Civilization (1933, reissued 1975); and Norman H. Baynes and Henry St. L.B. Moss (eds.), Byzantium: An Introduction to East Roman Civilization (1948, reprinted 1969). Special works include Paul Lemerle, Byzantine Humanism, the First Phase: Notes and Remarks on Education and Culture in Byzantium from Its Origins to the 10th Century (1986; originally published in French, 1971); and N.G. Wilson, Scholars of Byzantium (1983). On early Russian education, see Nicholas Hans, The Russian Tradition in Education (1963, reprinted 1973); William K. Medlin and Christos G. Patrinelis, Renaissance Influences and Religious Reforms in Russia: Western and Post-Byzantine Impacts on Culture and Education, 16th17th Centuries (1971); and Hugh F. Graham, Did Institutionalized Education Exist in Pre-Petrine Russia? in Don Karl Rowney and G. Edward Orchard (eds.), Russian and Slavic History (1977), pp. 260273. Medieval Muslim education and its impact upon Western education is studied in George Makdisi, The Rise of the Colleges: Institutions of Learning in Islam and the West (1981), an authoritative work; and Mehdi Nakosteen, History of Islamic Origins of Western Education, AD 8001350 (1964). The European Middle Ages Some of the best surveys of medieval European education are contained in the general histories of education listed at the beginning of this bibliography. On elementary and grammar schooling of the period, the first major work was A.F. Leach, The Schools of Medieval England (1915, reprinted 1969). Also important are Joan Simon, Education and Society in Tudor England (1966, reprinted 1979), which also covers the Renaissance and the Reformation; John William Adamson, The Illiterate Anglo-Saxon: And Other Essays on Education, Medieval and Modern (1946, reprinted 1977); and Nicholas Orme, English Schools in the Middle Ages (1973). For higher learning, see R.R. Bolgar, The Classical Heritage and Its Beneficiaries (1954, reprinted 1977); Charles Homer Haskins, The Rise of Universities (1923, reprinted 1976); Hastings Rashdall, The Universities of Europe in the Middle Ages, new ed., ed. by F.M. Powicke and A.B. Emden, 3 vol. (1936, reprinted 1987), a standard work; Helene Wieruszowski, The Medieval University: Masters, Students, Learning (1966); and Alan B. Cobban, The Medieval Universities: Their Development and Organization (1975). Relevant monographs are William J. Courtenay, Schools & Scholars in Fourteenth-Century England (1987); David Knowles, The Evolution of Medieval Thought, 2nd ed. (1988); and Nancy G. Siraisi, Arts and Sciences at Padua: The Studium of Padua Before 1350 (1973). Education in Asian civilizations, c. 700 to the eve of Western influence S.M. Jaffar, Education in Muslim India (1936, reprinted 1973), is a vivid documentary account. Narendra Nath Law, Promotion of Learning in India During Muhammadan Rule, by Muhammadans (1916, reprinted 1984 with a new introduction), is informative. For China and Japan, see Edward A. Kracke, Civil Service in Early Sung China, 9601067 (1953, reprinted 1968); R.P. Dore, Education in Tokugawa Japan (1965, reprinted 1984); and Richard Rubinger, Private Academies of Tokugawa Japan (1982). European Renaissance and Reformation Introductions to Renaissance education include William Harrison Woodward, Studies in Education During the Age of the Renaissance, 14001600 (1906, reprinted 1967), Vittorino da Feltre and other Humanist Educators (1897, reprinted 1970), and Desiderius Erasmus Concerning the Aim and Method of Education (1904, reprinted 1971). See also David Cressy, Literacy and the Social Order: Reading and Writing in Tudor and Stuart England (1980). Important works on the Reformation and Counter-Reformation are John Lawson, Mediaeval Education and the Reformation (1967); Frederick Eby, Early Protestant Educators: The Educational Writings of Martin Luther, John Calvin, and Other Leaders of Protestant Thought (1931, reprinted 1971); Gerald Strauss, Luther's House of Learning (1978); and Allan P. Farrell, The Jesuit Code of Liberal Education (1938). European education in the 17th and 18th centuries The general histories cited at the beginning of this bibliography offer good accounts of educational developments of the 17th and 18th centuries. For the 17th century, a useful work is John William Adamson, Pioneers of Modern Education 16001700 (1905, reissued 1972). Major theorists are treated in Jean Piaget, Introduction, in John Amos Comenius, Selections (1957), published by UNESCO; John W. Yolton, John Locke & Education (1971); Michael Mooney, Vico in the Tradition of Rhetoric (1985); H.C. Barnard, The French Tradition in Education: Ramus to Mme. Necker de Saussure (1922, reprinted 1970); William Boyd, The Educational Theory of Jean Jacques Rousseau (1911, reissued 1963); Allan Bloom, Introduction, in his edition of Jean Jacques Rousseau, Emile: Or, On Education (1979); and J.J. Chambliss, Educational Theory as Theory of Conduct: From Aristotle to Dewey (1987). Introductions to the 18th century include Nicholas Hans, New Trends in Education in the Eighteenth Century (1951, reprinted 1966); F. De La Fontainerie (ed.), French Liberalism and Education in the Eighteenth Century: The Writings of La Chalotais, Turgot, Diderot, and Condorcet on National Education (1932, reprinted 1971); and L.W.B. Brockliss, French Higher Education in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries (1987). For European influence on colonial developments, see Lus Martn and Jo Ann Geurin Pettus (eds.), Scholars and Schools in Colonial Peru (1973); and Joseph Maier and Richard W. Weatherhead, The Latin American University (1979). Western education in the 19th century This period is treated in the general histories cited above. The American Journal of Education (185682), ed. by Henry Barnard, remains a valuable source for European and U.S. educational developments. For analysis of theories, see Kate Silber, Pestalozzi: The Man and His Work, 3rd ed. (1973); and John Angus MacVannel, The Educational Theories of Herbart and Froebel (1905, reissued 1972). Works on individual countries include Friedrich Paulsen, German Education Past and Present (1908, reprinted 1976; originally published in German, 1906), a classic analysis; John William Adamson, English Education, 17891902 (1930, reprinted 1964); Patrick L. Alston, Education and the State in Tsarist Russia (1969); Ben Eklof, Russian Peasant Schools (1986); Bruce Curtis, Building the Educational State: Canada West, 18361871 (1988); A.G. Austin, Australian Education, 17881900, 2nd ed. (1965); and A.G. Butchers, Young New Zealand: A History of the Early Contact of the Maori Race with the European, and of the Establishment of a National System of Education for Both Races (1929). The spread of Western influences to Asia is studied in Makoto Aso and Ikuo Amano, Education and Japan's Modernization (1972, reissued 1983); Syed Nurullah and J.P. Naik, A History of Education in India During the British Period, 2nd rev. ed. (1951, reissued 1968); S.N. Mukerji, History of Education in India: Modern Period, 6th ed. (1974); and Bhagwan Dayal Srivastava, The Development of Modern Indian Education, rev. ed. (1963). Education in the 20th century Surveys of 20th-century practices and theories are found in the general histories listed at the beginning of this bibliography. See also Robin Barrow and Geoffrey Milburn, A Critical Dictionary of Educational Concepts (1986); T. Neville Postlethwaite (ed.), The Encyclopedia of Comparative Education and National Systems of Education (1988); J. Cameron et al. (eds.), International Handbook of Educational Systems, 3 vol. (198384); Harold E. Mitzel (ed.), Encyclopedia of Educational Research, 5th ed., 4 vol. (1982); Torsten Husn and T. Neville Postlethwaite (eds.), The International Encyclopedia of Education: Research and Studies, 10 vol. (1985), with supplementary volumes, the first of which appeared in 1989; and George Thomas Kurian (ed.), World Education Encyclopedia, 3 vol. (1988).Major trends and practical problems of education across the world are discussed in Thomas F. Green, The Activities of Teaching (1971); Gilbert R. Austin, Early Childhood Education: An International Perspective (1976); Isabelle Debl, The School Education of Girls: An International Comparative Study on School Wastage Among Girls and Boys at the First and Second Levels of Education (1980); Dietmar Rothermund and John Simon (eds.), Education and the Integration of Ethnic Minorities (1986); James A. Banks and James Lynch (eds.), Multicultural Education in Western Societies (1986); Edmund J. King, Other Schools and Ours, 5th ed. (1979); J.R. Hough (ed.), Educational Policy: An International Survey (1984); Robert F. Lawson (ed.), Changing Patterns of Secondary Education: An International Comparison (1987); Daniel C. Levy (ed.), Private Education: Studies in Choice and Public Policy (1986); Alexander N. Charters et al., Comparing Adult Education Worldwide (1981); Nell P. Eurich, Systems of Higher Education in Twelve Countries (1981); Burton R. Clark, The Higher Education System: Academic Organization in Cross-National Perspective (1983); and Philip H. Coombs, The World Crisis in Education: The View from the Eighties (1985).Studies of various contemporary educational philosophies and trends include John Dewey, Democracy and Education: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Education (1916, reprinted 1966); Harry S. Broudy, Building a Philosophy of Education, 2nd ed. (1961, reprinted 1977), and The Uses of Schooling (1988); Paul H. Hirst, Knowledge and the Curriculum: A Collection of Philosophical Papers (1974); Merle Curti, The Social Ideas of American Educators (1935, reprinted 1978); Madan Sarup, Marxism and Education (1978); Jonas F. Soltis (ed.), Philosophy and Education (1981); and Ernest Stabler, Founders: Innovators in Education, 18301980 (1986).Works on individual countries are legion, and only a sample can be cited here. For Europe, see Keith Evans, The Development and Structure of the English School System (1985); and Brian Simon and William Taylor, Education in the Eighties: The Central Issues (1981), focusing on Great Britain; Christoph Fhr, Education and Teaching in the Federal Republic of Germany (1979; originally published in German, 1979); W.D. Halls, Education, Culture, and Politics in Modern France (1976); and Leon Boucher, Tradition and Change in Swedish Education (1982).Studies specifically on U.S. education include Lawrence A. Cremin, The Transformation of the School: Progressivism in American Education, 18761957 (1961); Samuel Bowles and Herbert Gintis, Schooling in Capitalist America (1976); Ernest L. Boyer, High School: A Report on Secondary Education in America (1983); Christopher Jencks et al., Inequality: A Reassessment of the Effect of Family and Schooling in America (1972); Clarence J. Karier, Paul C. Violas, and Joel Spring, Roots of Crisis: American Education in the Twentieth Century (1972); Michael B. Katz, Class, Bureaucracy, and Schools: The Illusion of Educational Change in America, expanded ed. (1975); Judy Jolley Mohraz, The Separate Problem: Case Studies of Black Education in the North, 19001930 (1979); Diane Ravitch, The Troubled Crusade: American Education, 19451980 (1983); and Fred F. Harcleroad and Allan W. Ostar, Colleges and Universities for Change: America's Comprehensive Public State Colleges and Universities (1987). Allan Bloom, The Closing of the American Mind (1987), provides an example of intellectual criticism of the educational system.For Canada, see Carolyn Cossage, A Question of Privilege: Canada's Independent Schools (1977); Robin S. Harris, A History of Higher Education in Canada, 16631960 (1976); Organisation For Economic Co-operation And Development, Reviews of National Policies for Education: Canada (1976); Hugh A. Stevenson and J. Donald Wilson, Quality in Canadian Public Education: A Critical Assessment (1988); T.H.B. Symons, To Know Ourselves: The Report of the Commission on Canadian Studies, 3 vol. in 2 (197584); and George S. Tomkins, A Common Countenance: Stability and Change in the Canadian Curriculum (1986). For Australia, see Peter Dwyer, Bruce Wilson, and Roger Wook, Confronting School and Work: Youth and Class Cultures in Australia (1984); L.E. Foster, Australian Education: A Sociological Perspective (1981); Peter Karmel (ed.), Education, Change, and Society (1981), papers of a conference of the Australian Council for Educational Research; and R.J.R. King and R.E. Young, A Systematic Sociology of Australian Education (1986). For New Zealand, see Ian Cumming and Alan Cumming, History of State Education in New Zealand, 18401975 (1978); and Organisation For Economic Co-operation And Development, Reviews of National Policies for Education: New Zealand (1983).There are many works discussing the systems of education in those countries that have experienced major social upheavals. For the Soviet Union, see Joseph I. Zajda, Education in the USSR (1980); Sheila Fitzpatrick, Education and Social Mobility in the Soviet Union, 19211934 (1979); Ludwig Liegle, The Family's Role in Soviet Education (1975; originally published in German, 1970); Mervyn Matthews, Education in the Soviet Union: Policies and Institutions Since Stalin (1982); John Dunstan, Paths to Excellence and the Soviet School (1978); and J.J. Tomiak (ed.), Soviet Education in the 1980s (1983). For China, see Theodore E. Hsiao, The History of Modern Education in China (1932); Ronald F. Price, Education in Modern China, 2nd ed. (1979); Theodore Hsi-en Chen, Chinese Education Since 1949 (1981), The Maoist Educational Revolution (1974), and Educational Development in the People's Republic of China, 19491981, in Hungdah Chiu and Shao-chuan Leng (eds.), China Seventy Years After the 1911 Hsin-Hai Revolution (1984), pp. 364389; Wolfgang Franke, The Reform and Abolition of the Traditional Chinese Examination System (1960, reprinted 1972); Knight Biggerstaff, The Earliest Modern Government School in China (1961, reprinted 1972); and Ruth Hayhoe, China's Universities and the Open Door (1988). Ronald F. Price, Marx and Education in Russia and China (1977), is a comparative philosophical study. Afro-Asian patterns of education are studied in Robert Leestma et al., Japanese Education Today: A Report from the U.S. Study of Education in Japan (1987); Japan Provisional Council On Educational Reform, First Report on Educational Reform (1985); Richard Lynn, Educational Achievement in Japan: Lessons for the West (1988); R. Murray Thomas and T. Neville Postlethwaite (eds.), Schooling in East Asia: Forces of Change: Formal and Nonformal Education in Japan, the Republic of China, the People's Republic of China, South Korea, North Korea, Hong Kong, and Macau (1983), Schooling in the ASEAN Region: Primary and Secondary Education in Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, and Thailand (1980), and Schooling in the Pacific Islands: Colonies in Transition (1984); Pakistan. Ministry Of Education, National Education Policy and Implementation Programme (1979); Asian Programme Of Educational Innovation For Development, Towards Universalisation of Primary Education in Asia and the Pacific: Country Studies, 12 vol. (1984), a UNESCO publication covering Bangladesh, China, India, Indonesia, Nepal, Pakistan, Papua New Guinea, the Philippines, South Korea, Vietnam, Sri Lanka, and Thailand; A. Biswas and S.P. Agrawal (comps.), Development of Education in India: A Historical Survey of Educational Documents Before and After Independence (1986); S.N. Mukerji, Education in India Today and Tomorrow, 7th ed. (1976); R.M. Ruperti, The Education System in Southern Africa (1976; originally published in Afrikaans, 1974); Pam Christie, The Right to Learn: The Struggle for Education in South Africa (1985); and A.L. Behr, New Perspectives in South African Education (1984).Education in developing countries is the subject of A.R. Thompson, Education and Development in Africa (1981); A. Babs Fafunwa and J.U. Aisiku (eds.), Education in Africa: A Comparative Survey (1982); David G. Scanlon (ed.), Church, State, and Education in Africa (1966); Ali A. Mazrui, Political Values and the Educated Class in Africa (1978); R.H. Dave, A. Ouane, and A.M. Ranaweera (eds.), Learning Strategies for Post-Literacy and Continuing Education in Algeria, Egypt, and Kuwait (1987); Judith Cochran, Education in Egypt (1986); James Allman, Social Mobility, Education, and Development in Tunisia (1979); Joseph S. Szyliowicz, Education and Modernization in the Middle East (1973); Byron G. Massialas and Samir Ahmed Jarrar, Education in the Arab World (1983); Josefina Vzquez, Nacionalismo y educacin en Mxico, 2nd ed. (1975); George R. Waggoner and Barbara Ashton Waggoner, Education in Central America (1971); Fay Haussman and Jerry Haar, Education in Brazil (1978); and Daniel C. Levy, Higher Education and the State in Latin America (1986). Nobuo Shimahara S.N. Mukerji Theodore Hsi-en Chen James Bowen Robert Browning Hugh F. Graham Joseph S. Szyliowicz J.J. Chambliss Josefina Zoraida Vzquez Robert Frederic Lawson Oskar Anweiler David G. Scanlon R. Murray Thomas