GIRL GROUPS

primarily American female vocal groups popular from the early to the mid-1960s, the period between the heyday of early rock and roll and the British Invasion. The girl group era produced a clearly identifiable hybrid of gospel, rhythm and blues, doo-wop, and quirky pop. The high-pitched, husky, teen-girl sound of acts such as the Ronettes and the Supremes epitomized the ebullient hopes of early 1960s culture and feminized rock music, providing a model for male beat groups such as the Beatles. The scene centred around a cluster of fiercely competitive, specialist independent labels such as Philles, Scepter, Red Bird, Dimension, and Motown. The material for many of the genre's biggest acts came mainly from three successful husband-and-wife songwriting teams with Brill Building connections: Gerry Goffin and Carole King, Ellie Greenwich and Jeff Barry, and Barry Mann and Cynthia Weil. Meanwhile, the Motown girl groups benefited from the songwriting talents of the Holland-Dozier-Holland team and Smokey Robinson. The girl group sound was a mixture of black doo-wop, rock and roll, and white pop. In attempting to sweeten rock and roll for the teen pop market, songwriters and producers in the early 1960s created an original sound characterized by a raw-edged lead vocal, echoing harmonies from the backing vocalists, fulsome string arrangements, and a driving beat. Groups sang of teen concerns like romance, sexual etiquette, and marriage, as well as love, loss, and abandonment. The sound exploded in 1961 with the Shirelles' Will You Love Me Tomorrow, the first girl group single to reach number one. Over the next five years hundreds of girl group records were released, including Chapel of Love (1964) by the Dixie Cups, a trio from New Orleans, Louisiana, and Leader of the Pack (1964) by the Shangri-Las, three streetwise Jewish girls from New York City. Producer Phil Spector dominated the genre and invented the layered, harmonic wall of sound that characterized hits by the Crystals and the Ronettes. While Spector made huge financial profits for his Philles label, many of his acts did not. Girl groups were treated like factory production line fodderthe Crystals, for instance, were cheated out of royalties when Spector paid a session singer, Darlene Love, a flat studio fee to record songs like He's a Rebel that were credited to the group. The Crystals then found themselves fronting songs they had not recorded. Although royalty disputes were endemic in the industry at the time, girl groups were often treated the worst. Motown boss Berry Gordy, Jr., also ruthlessly relegated one of his most talented acts, Martha and the Vandellas, to the shadows in favour of the Supremes' more upmarket chic. The girl group style endured. In the 1980s it was combined with rock and punk music by such bands as the Go-Go's and the Bangles, and in the 1990s a new generation of vocal acts interpreted the style with added funkiness. Moreover, latter-day performers such as En Vogue, Janet Jackson, and the British act the Spice Girls (whose success sparked another explosion of girl groups, especially in Asia) received the recognition and financial rewards they deserved. Lucy M. O'Brien Additional reading Charlotte Greig, Will You Still Love Me Tomorrow?: Girl Groups from the 50s On (1989), is a definitive analysis of the girl group period. Nelson George, Where Did Our Love Go?: The Rise & Fall of the Motown Sound (1985), presents a well-researched story of Motown. Lucy O'Brien, She Bop: The Definitive History of Women in Rock, Pop, and Soul (1995), examines the girl group sound in the wider context of women's rock history. Representative Works: The Shirelles, Will You Love Me Tomorrow (1960) The Crystals, Then He Kissed Me (1963) The Ronettes, Be My Baby (1963) The Shangri-Las, Leader of the Pack (1964) Mary Wells, My Guy (1964) Martha and the Vandellas, Nowhere to Run (1965) The Supremes, Stop! In the Name of Love (1965)