GUATEMALA, HISTORY OF

history of the area from colonial times to the present. The origin of the name Guatemala is Indian, but its derivation and meaning are undetermined. Some hold that the original form was Quauhtemallan (indicating an Aztec rather than a Mayan origin), meaning land of trees, and others hold that its origin was Guhatezmalha, meaning mountain of vomiting water, referring no doubt to such volcanic eruptions as the one that destroyed Santiago de los Caballeros de Guatemala, the first permanent Spanish capital of the captaincy general. Additional reading A good general history is Jim Handy, Gift of the Devil: A History of Guatemala (1984). Chester Lloyd Jones, Guatemala, Past and Present (1940, reissued 1966), is still useful. Thomas Melville and Marjorie Melville, Guatemala: The Politics of Land Ownership (1971), discusses the question of landholding and the lack of reform. The violence that has characterized the history of Guatemala since 1945 is detailed in Eduardo Galeano, Guatemala: Occupied Country (1969); Susanne Jonas and David Tobis (eds.), Guatemala (1974); Roger Plant, Guatemala: Unnatural Disaster (1978); and Jonathan L. Fried et al. (eds.), Guatemala in Rebellion: Unfinished History (1983), an Americas Watch Committee report. The economy Guatemala is a developing country largely dependent upon traditional commercial crops as the basis of its market economy. Vigorous economic growth during the 1960s and '70s was followed by a severe economic downturn during the '80s. The government has attempted to revitalize the economy by fostering the diversification and expansion of nontraditional exports, and free trade zones have been established to encourage the expansion and decentralization of manufacturing. The collection of personal income taxes has improved significantly; the government, however, continues to rely upon revenue from other tax sources, such as customs duties, sales taxes, and excises on liquor and tobacco. Although labour unions and student and peasant organizations have greater freedoms, leaders continue to suffer harassments and threats of death. In an effort to sustain the government, the United States has greatly increased economic and military aid since 1980. Negative trade balances and foreign indebtedness, however, continue to hamper the economy. Resources Surveys have long reported Guatemala to have a wealth of mineral resources; this potential has had only minimal fulfillment, however. Since 1981 several million barrels of petroleum have been extracted annually from oil wells located in the Petn. The export of concentrates of lead, zinc, and antimony is minimal. The export of nickel from the region of Lake Izabal was terminated in 1981. The agricultural resources of Guatemala are rich. Although rugged landscapes prevail in much of the volcanic region, numerous highland basins and the Pacific piedmont and coastal plain provide productive soils for agriculture. Within the sierras, the lower Motagua valley offers excellent soils. The wide range of climates allows for a diversity of crops. The efficient exploitation of soils is primarily limited by the inequitable distribution of land (large landowners not being required to maximize land use) and the inability to provide the agricultural sector with adequate financial supporti.e., funding of small farms. Forest and fishing resources have considerable potential. Forest products are derived primarily from the tropical forests of the Petn and the coniferous forests of the highlands. Limited accessibility, however, hinders the exploitation of forest resources. The coastal waters of the Pacific in particular provide fishing resources of some importance. The land Relief The surface of Guatemala is dominated by four major features. In the south is a landscape of volcanic origin that extends for a distance of 180 miles (290 kilometres) between neighbouring Mexico and El Salvador. It is bordered on its seaward margin by the Pacific Ocean. The Petn departamento, a large, somewhat rectangular area, juts northward to occupy a portion of the Yucatn Peninsula, a limestone platform shared with Mexico and Belize. Sandwiched between the volcanic landscape and the Petn are the high ranges and valleys of the sierras of northern Central America. These arc gently eastward from Mexico for a distance of 210 miles, extending into northern Honduras and continuing on beneath the surface of the Caribbean. The southern volcanic region of Guatemala consists of three elements: a row of volcanoes of geologically recent origin, flanked by a deeply eroded volcanic tableland of older origin to the north and a narrow coastal plain constructed of volcanic debris on the south. The alignment of volcanic cones begins with the Tacan Volcano (13,428 feet [4,093 metres]), located on the frontier with Mexico, and continues eastward across Guatemala into El Salvador. The highest peak is Tajumulco (13,845 feet [4,220 metres]). Among these are three continuously active volcanoesthe growing summit of Santiaguito located on the southern flanks of Santa Mara (12,375 feet [3,772 metres]), Fuego (12,582 feet [3,835 metres]), and Pacaya (8,371 feet [2,552 metres]). The rugged and deeply dissected volcanic tableland, which lies to the north of the volcanic row, averages 9,000 feet in elevation near the Mexican border and declines gradually to 3,000 feet at the opposite border with El Salvador. Ash-filled basins and a number of scenic lakes are scattered throughout this region. From the base of the volcanic row, the Pacific coastal plain slopes south to the shoreline of the Pacific Ocean. Rising imperceptibly from sea level to an elevation of 1,500 feet, the plain extends east-west for a distance of about 150 miles. Ranging between 25 and 50 miles in width, it is one of the nation's richest agricultural areas. Three-fourths of the population and most of the major cities are concentrated there, and the volcanic eruptions and earthquakes characteristic of this region have repeatedly taken a heavy toll of property and life. The range and valley landscape of the sierras provides a major barrier between the heavily occupied volcanic landscape to the south and the sparsely populated Petn to the north. Sierra los Cuchumatanes to the west rises to elevations in excess of 10,000 feet. Eastward, the lower sierras of Cham, Santa Cruz, Chuacs, Las Minas, and the Montaas del Mico are separated by deep valleys that open eastward upon a narrow Caribbean shoreline. The Petn, lying largely below 1,000 feet in elevation, exhibits a knobby, or hilly, surface dominated by subsurface drainage of water. The region is replete with scattered lakes, Lake Petn Itz being the largest. Extensive flooding takes place during the rainy season. Drainage The east-flowing Motagua River and west-flowing Cuilco pass in opposite directions through a structural trough that serves as the boundary between the volcanic terrain of southern Guatemala and the sierras that extend across the midsection of the nation. South of this trough, the land is drained by a series of small rivers that drain into the Pacific Ocean. The sierra region is drained by larger rivers that flow primarily north into the Gulf of Mexico by way of the Usumacinta River. The 250-mile-long Motagua River is the longest of a series of rivers draining eastward toward the Caribbean. Because of the nature of the bedrock in the Petn, much of the region is drained by the subsurface flow of water. The people Ethnic composition On the basis of cultural traits, the population is divided into two main ethnic groupsLadinos and Amerindians. The Ladinos comprise those of mixed Hispanic-Amerindian origin in addition to those Amerindians who have adopted Western ways of life. While Amerindians account for some 45 percent of the nation's total population, they make up 75 percent of the population in the western highland provinces. The Ladinos are the more commercially and politically influential group, and they make up most of the urban population. Most of the small number of blacks, called Black Caribs, inhabit the Caribbean lowlands. Linguistic composition All official transactions in Guatemala are conducted in Spanish. There are, however, about 20 Amerindian languages spoken, most of them of Mayan origin. The largest Amerindian groups are the Mam, who reside in the western departments of Guatemala; the Quich, who occupy areas to the north and west of Lake Atitln; the Cakchiquel, who extend from the eastern shores of Lake Atitln to Guatemala City; and the Kekchi, who are concentrated in the sierras to the north and west of Lake Izabal. Many of the Amerindians also speak Spanish.