GUINEA-BISSAU, FLAG OF

national flag consisting of two horizontal stripes of yellow and green and, at the hoist, a vertical red stripe with a black star. The flag has a width-to-length ratio of approximately 1 to 2. The African Party for the Independence of Guinea and Cape Verde (PAIGC) found ready support in those Portuguese colonies for its message of social and economic advancement through political revolution. In 1961 it adopted a flag somewhat similar to those of the neighbouring independent countries of Guinea and Ghana, which were then discussing a future federation of West African lands. To their pan-African red-yellow-green, the liberation movement for Guinea-Bissau added a black star on the hoist stripe. That stripe and star corresponded geographically to the western coastal region with its capital city, Bissau (from which the national name was derived). The horizontal stripes in the remaining part of the flag and their yellow and green colours roughly corresponded to the savannas of the north and the forests of the south. Officially the black star was said to be a symbol of PAIGC leadership, its colour referring to the African people and their determination to live in dignity, freedom, and peace. Yellow was interpreted as a symbol of harvest and the fruits of work, both in agriculture and otherwise. Green recalled the vast jungles and the agricultural lands, which provided a livelihood for the vast majority of citizens. The party flag also incorporated the initials PAIGC, omitted when independence was proclaimed on September 24, 1973. Portugal did not recognize Guinea-Bissau or its flag until after its own revolution in 1974; nevertheless, much of Guinea-Bissau was already under control of the PAIGC and its flag. Cape Verde eventually abandoned the Marxist politics of the PAIGC and changed its national flag, but Guinea-Bissau retains the original design. Whitney Smith History Early history For more than a thousand years the coast of Guinea-Bissau has been occupied by iron-using agriculturists. They were particularly skilled in the production of irrigated and dry rice and were suppliers of marine salt to adjacent areas of the western Sudan. From the 13th century coastal farmers came increasingly into contact with the outside world, first from the landward side and later from the seaward portion. The earliest recorded influences are associated with the dissolution of the Ghana empire when displaced peoples sought refuge near the coast. Later the region was loosely drawn into the sphere of the Mali empire, and regional governors called farims were appointed to impose some form of allegiance to the great Mande ruler. Overseas contacts with the Guinea Coast were opened by the Portuguese, starting in the 1440s. Guinea played an important role in the colonization of the Cape Verde Islands from this period. Slave labour was first used to establish plantations of cotton and indigo, and then skilled Guinea craftsmen were introduced to establish a weaving and dyeing industry. Much of the cloth was sent back to the mainland for the purchase of slaves destined for the Americas. The transatlantic slave trade was facilitated by Portuguese and mulattoes called lanados who acted as intermediaries between the Guinean rulers and the visiting slave ships. In the 16th century the expansion of Mande-speaking peoples into the upper Guinea Coast area caused wars that greatly increased the number of prisoners available for export as slaves. In addition to the slave trade the country conducted some trade in salt, kola nuts, and food to the interior and ivory, wax, dyewood, and hides overseas. The main overseas buyers came from Portugal, Britain, Holland, and France. During the next four centuries, when the slave trade was the main economic activity of the country, the people of Guinea had little difficulty in preventing or restricting the attempts of foreign powers to establish territorial claims. A post established at Cacheu by Cape Verde traders in 1588 was given periodic support by the Lisbon government during the 17th century but did not expand. In 1687 a Portuguese post was established at Bissau in an attempt to limit French commercial competition by political, diplomatic, and military means, but that too failed to survive. In 1792 the English briefly and disastrously held a settlement at Bolama. Meanwhile the Portuguese had reestablished a base at Bissau and during the 19th century increasingly came to regard the coast on either side as sovereign territory. The colonial era The Portuguese territorial claim in Guinea was disputed by both the British and the French. Periodic negotiation first of all excluded the British (1870) and then settled the boundaries with the French-claimed territories (1886 and 190205). These frontier agreements were followed by the slow and sometimes violent imposition of Portuguese colonial rule. The final pacification campaigns were fought by Joo Teixeira Pinto in 191315. These wars were followed by nearly half a century of predominantly peaceful Portuguese administration. But with the rise of African nationalism after World War II and the gaining of independence by the neighbouring territories, Guineans again began to challenge their colonial rulers. Nationalist attacks on Portuguese administrative and military posts were instigated in July 1961 by guerrillas of the PAIGC, led by Amlcar Cabral. In August Cabral declared at Conakry, capital of the French-speaking Republic of Guinea, that political endeavours to obtain the liberation of Portuguese Guinea and the Cape Verde Islands from Portuguese domination would be replaced by armed struggle. Bitter guerrilla warfare ensued between the PAIGC National Liberation Army (about 10,000 men) and the Portuguese armed forces (about 30,000 strong). The guerrillas were unable to occupy the coastal towns and river ports, but by 1971 they were firmly established in the interior, especially in the areas adjacent to the republics of Senegal and Guinea. The economy Resources There has not been a comprehensive survey of mineral resources, but large deposits of bauxite in the east along the Guinean border and phosphates in the centre and northwest have been found. A lack of infrastructure has slowed mining. There is offshore prospecting for petroleum. The Corubal River has immense hydroelectric potential, and a project is planned on the Corubal at Saltinho. Agriculture, fishing, and forestry The economy is largely agricultural, with good prospects for forestry and fishery development. Rice is the main staple, and export crops include peanuts, cashews, palm products, timber, and seafood. Indigenous hardwoods are the predominant forestry export. Fishing potential is estimated at nearly 250,000 metric tons per year. Most of the fishing is done by foreign vessels under license. Restoration of prewar levels of production has been hampered by government neglect of rural development and by trade policies that primarily benefit urban areas. Less than half the arable land is in use. Urban areas in particular have suffered food shortages, and scarce foreign exchange is used to import food. The land Relief Almost all of Guinea-Bissau is low-lying and bathed daily by tidal waters that reach as much as 62 miles (100 kilometres) inland. In the southeastern part of the country, the Fouta Djallon plateau rises approximately 600 feet (180 metres). The Bo Hills extend from the western slopes of the Fouta Djallon to the Corubal Basin and the Gab Plain. The coastal area is demarcated by a dense network of drowned valleys, called rias. The Bafat Plateau is drained by the Geba and Corubal rivers. The Gab Plain occupies the northeastern portion of the country and is drained by the Cacheu and Geba rivers and their tributaries. The interior plains are part of the southern edge of the Sngal River basin. The uniform elevation of the mature floodplain allows rivers to meander and renders the area susceptible to flooding during the rainy season. Climate Rainfall occurs between May and October, followed by a dry season. April and May are the hottest months, with afternoon temperatures in the high 90s F (mid-30s C) at most locations. The coast has a monsoonal climate with abundant rainfall, amounting to 60 to 120 inches (1,500 to 3,000 millimetres), whereas the interior is influenced by the tropical savanna climate, with greater variation in rainfall and temperature. The people Ethnic and linguistic composition The population includes more than 20 ethnicities; the main groups are the Balanta, Fulani, Mandyako, Pepel (Papel), Bram, and Malinke. In theory, each ethnic group originally had a territory (known as chao), but conquestfirst by the Malinke and then by the Fulani and their expansion toward the coastthe movement of the Balanta southward, and the war and postwar migrations have tended to complicate the settlement pattern. The largest and most widely spread group, the Balanta Brassa, belong to a relatively egalitarian society in which patrilineage, household, age group, and gender are important divisions. They were the most receptive to nationalist slogans of emancipation from Portuguese rule. A fiercely independent people, largely animist in belief, they constituted the most notable body of guerrilla forces during the war against Portugal. A recent grass roots movement sought renovation and change in the social structure. The Fulani, who may be divided into at least three subgroups, were originally pastoralists, but in the 19th century they conquered large sections of western Africa. Their society is Muslim and hierarchical. Largely impervious to Portuguese culturebut not to collaborating with the colonial administrationmany of their leaders became tactical allies of the Portuguese army against the guerrillas, whom they saw as a threat to their religion, society, and traditions. Some smaller groups, however, joined the nationalists in order to emancipate themselves from the authority of elders and lords. The Malinke, the ancient rulers of the Senegambia, live in stratified societies of noble families; craftsmen, traders, and other professional groups; and descendants of former captives. They also converted to Islam. Mandyako and Pepel in the northern coastal region were among the first peoples to establish trading relations with the Portuguese. Some intermarried with them; others worked for them, adopting European customs and dress and helping to create and spread the trading language Crioulo. The Pepel, however, fiercely defended their landlord rights against the Europeans. Some of the smaller groups, such as the Biafada, Felupe, Bayot, Nalu, Susu, and Bijags, are coastal farmers and appear to have been little influenced by either Portuguese or Islamic culture. Urbanized Guineans, formerly called assimilados and numbering only a few thousand, adapted many aspects of European culture and became chiefly civil servants or white-collar workers, professions they still occupy. A formerly significant colony of Cape Verdeans immigrated during colonial times as farmer-traders, soldiers, and administrators for the Portuguese. They played a prominent role within the nationalist leadership, seeking to unite Cape Verde and Guinea-Bissau, but lost most of their influence after the coup in 1980. Non-Africans include Portuguese, eastern and western European, Cuban, and Brazilian technical experts and Lebanese merchants. Among the African languages spoken are two categories: the first includes the Mande-tan grouping and the Mande-fu grouping. The second, the Atlantic (West Atlantic) language group, includes all other African languages spoken in Guinea-Bissau. Apart from this mixture of some 20 languages and dialects, the lingua franca is Crioulo. It exerts a unifying influence in the rural areas and, along with Portuguese, is used in schools. Portuguese is the official language. Some Arabic is known by Muslim scholars. Religions Traditional animist beliefs have remained strong, even among those who have formally adopted Christianity or Islam. Christianity made only a few inroads during the Portuguese colonial period. There remain a small number of Roman Catholics and a few Protestants. Most adherents of Islam belong to the Qadiriyah or Tijaniyah orders. Portugal supported the expansion of Islam to help counteract the influence of nationalist leaders. Since independence, the government of Guinea-Bissau has joined the Islamic Conference and receives aid from Saudi Arabia and Kuwait. The Libyan government, moreover, supports the spread of Islam in a variety of ways.