HEROIC POETRY

narrative verse that is elevated in mood and uses a dignified, dramatic, and formal style to describe the deeds of aristocratic warriors and rulers. It is usually composed without the aid of writing and is chanted or recited to the accompaniment of a stringed instrument. It is transmitted orally from bard to bard over generations. The extant body of heroic poetry ranges from quite ancient to modern works, produced over a widespread geographic area. It includes what are probably the earliest forms of this verse-panegyrics praising a hero's lineage and deeds, and laments on a hero's death. Homer relates that when Hector's body was brought home "they laid it upon the bed and seated minstrels round it to lead the dirge." Another type of heroic poem is the short, dramatic lay devoted to a single event, such as the Old English Battle of Maldon (c. 991), describing a Viking raid on Essex, or the Old High German Hildebrandslied (c. 800), dealing with a duel between father and son. The mature form of heroic poetry is the full-scale epic, such as the Iliad or Odyssey. Most heroic poetry looks back to a dimly defined "heroic age" when a generation of superior beings performed extraordinary feats of skill and courage. The heroic age varies in different native literatures. The epics of Homer created in the 8th century BC centre on a war with Troy that may have occurred c. 1200 BC. The heroic poetry of the German, Scandinavian, and English peoples deals chiefly with a period from the 4th to 6th century AD, the time of the great migrations (Vlkerwanderung) of the Germanic people. Though some of the heroes portrayed are historical personages, their actions are often combined and related for artistic purposes, with no regard for actual historical chronology. Nevertheless, a heroic tale is assumed by the poet and his listeners to be somehow true. Its style is impersonal and objective, and the graphic realism of its detail gives it an air of probability that outweighs the occasional intrusion of marvelous elements. None of the mundane details of the hero's acts and none of the amenities connected with them are slighted. The listener is told how the hero looks, what he wears, what he eats, how he sleeps. Thus, Homer's careful description of how Achilles dresses for battle, how he dons each piece of armour, how he mounts his chariot and addresses his horses, has a verisimilitude that remains undestroyed when his horse converses with him. Much ancient heroic poetry has been wholly lost, but the tradition is still alive among certain illiterate and semiliterate peoples living in remote communities. In the late 19th and 20th centuries a wealth of new heroic literature was collected from native storytellers in Russia, Estonia, Yugoslavia, Bulgaria, Albania, and Greece. In Central Asia heroic poems have been collected from Tatar peoples speaking Turkish dialects; some particularly fine examples come from the Kara-Kirgiz of the Tien Shan mountains. The Yakut of northern Siberia, the Ainu of northern Japan, and some of the tribes of Arabia have also composed heroic poetry in modern times. Research by modern scholars among these people has resolved any doubt that long epics could be composed orally and has shed light on the methods of oral composition that must have been used by ancient poets like Homer. Knowing the essentials of a number of traditional stories, and armed with a stock of ready-made formulaic expressions to describe common occurrences such as meetings, partings, passages of time, and victories or defeats, the oral bard improvises his tale as he goes along. His art is a skillful blend of familiar scenes with new incident and detail. He does not memorize his tale and usually cannot repeat exactly the same version again. In 1934 the American Homeric scholar Milman Parry transcribed an epic poem of 12,000 lines (the length of the Odyssey) from an illiterate bard in southern Serbia. Equally astonishing feats of memory and improvisation have been reported by Russian scholars working among the Uzbek and Kara-Kirgiz bards.